Showing papers on "Verbal reasoning published in 2015"

Reasoning about Quantities in Natural Language

Abstract: Little work from the Natural Language Processing community has targeted the role of quantities in Natural Language Understanding. This paper takes some key steps towards facilitating reasoning about quantities expressed in natural language. We investigate two different tasks of numerical reasoning. First, we consider Quantity Entailment, a new task formulated to understand the role of quantities in general textual inference tasks. Second, we consider the problem of automatically understanding and solving elementary school math word problems. In order to address these quantitative reasoning problems we first develop a computational approach which we show to successfully recognize and normalize textual expressions of quantities. We then use these capabilities to further develop algorithms to assist reasoning in the context of the aforementioned tasks.

Using “Think Aloud” to Capture Clinical Reasoning during Patient Simulation

Abstract: Think Aloud (TA), a strategy in which subjects are instructed to verbalize thoughts as they occur while completing an assigned task, was integrated into a study of clinical reasoning during high fidelity patient simulation by baccalaureate nursing students. TA methods in nursing education research with patient simulation have not previously been reported. Concurrent TA (verbalization of thoughts in short-term memory) and retrospective TA (reflective thoughts verbalized during an immediate post-simulation interview) methods facilitated the collection of rich and meaningful data. Students demonstrated distinct patterns in verbalization during concurrent TA, including public and private thoughts, narration of care, and the use of the pause to facilitate clinical reasoning. Retrospective TA data provided rich descriptions of reflection-on-action. TA provides a rich source of data regarding clinical reasoning as experienced by the baccalaureate nursing student during high fidelity patient simulation.

Analogical Reasoning in the Classroom: Insights from Cognitive Science.

Abstract: Applying knowledge from one context to another is a notoriously difficult problem, both for children and adults, but lies at the heart of educational endeavors. Analogical reasoning is a cognitive underpinning of the abil- ity to notice and draw similarities across contexts. Reasoning by analogy is especially challenging for students, who must transfer in the context-rich and often high-pressure settings of classrooms. In this brief article, we explore how best to facilitate children's analogical reasoning, with the aim of providing practical suggestions for classroom instruction. We first discuss what is known about the development and neurological underpinnings of analogical reasoning, and then review research directly relevant to supporting ana- logical reasoning in classroom contexts. We conclude with concrete suggestions for educators that may foster their students' spontaneous analogical reasoning and thereby enhance scholastic achievement.

Model-Based Reasoning in Humans Becomes Automatic with Training.

Abstract: Model-based and model-free reinforcement learning (RL) have been suggested as algorithmic realizations of goal-directed and habitual action strategies. Model-based RL is more flexible than model-free but requires sophisticated calculations using a learnt model of the world. This has led model-based RL to be identified with slow, deliberative processing, and model-free RL with fast, automatic processing. In support of this distinction, it has recently been shown that model-based reasoning is impaired by placing subjects under cognitive load--a hallmark of non-automaticity. Here, using the same task, we show that cognitive load does not impair model-based reasoning if subjects receive prior training on the task. This finding is replicated across two studies and a variety of analysis methods. Thus, task familiarity permits use of model-based reasoning in parallel with other cognitive demands. The ability to deploy model-based reasoning in an automatic, parallelizable fashion has widespread theoretical implications, particularly for the learning and execution of complex behaviors. It also suggests a range of important failure modes in psychiatric disorders.

The cognitive abilities associated with verbal fluency task performance differ across fluency variants and age groups in healthy young and old adults.

Abstract: Despite their widespread use in research and clinical practice, the cognitive abilities purportedly assessed by different verbal fluency task variants remain unclear and may vary across different healthy and clinical populations. The overarching aim of this study was to identify which cognitive abilities contribute to phonemic, semantic, excluded letter, and alternating verbal fluency tasks and whether these contributions differ across younger and older healthy adults. Method: Ninety-six younger (18–36 years) and 83 older (65–87 years) healthy participants completed measures of estimated verbal intelligence, semantic retrieval, processing speed, working memory, and inhibitory control, in addition to phonemic, semantic, excluded letter, and alternating fluency tasks. Eight hierarchical multiple regressions were conducted across the four fluency variants and two age groups to identify which cognitive variables uniquely contributed to these fluency tasks. Results: In the younger group, verbal intelligence an...

Exploration of Students' Clinical Reasoning Development in Professional Physical Therapy Education

Abstract: Background and Purpose.Given the complexity of the current health care environment, effective clinical reasoning skills are fundamental to making critical patient care decisions. The purpose of this study was to explore the clinical reasoning abilities of students across time in 1 professional Docto

Unraveling the effects of critical thinking instructions, practice, and self-explanation on students’ reasoning performance

Abstract: Acquisition of critical thinking skills is considered an important goal in higher education, but it is still unclear which specific instructional techniques are effective for fostering it. The main aim of this study was to unravel the impact of critical thinking instructions, practice, and self-explanation prompts during practice, on students’ reasoning skills that are prone to bias. Another aim was to replicate findings regarding the influence of dispositions on reasoning skills prior to and after instructions, and to explore the relationship between reasoning performance, confidence, and invested mental effort prior to and after instructions. Economics students (N = 152) were randomly assigned to one of six conditions in a pre-test post-test control group design. Only participants exposed to critical thinking instruction improved their reasoning skills; practice and self-explanation prompts did not improve reasoning compared to instructions only. Dispositions (i.e., actively open-minded thinking) correlated positively with pre- and post-test reasoning scores; however, the instructions were equally effective for all participants. Confidence scores correlated negatively with invested mental effort. Instructions affected invested mental effort but not confidence ratings on the post-test. This study showed that first year economics students could enhance their reasoning performance by means of a short and relatively straightforward instructional intervention that was equally effective for all participants regardless of their disposition scores, which is promising for longer-term educational interventions.

Neurocognitive performance of children with higher functioning autism spectrum disorders on the NEPSY-II.

Abstract: This study examined patterns of strengths and weaknesses in the neurocognitive performance of children with higher functioning autism spectrum disorder (ASD). The participants were 30 children with higher functioning ASD ranging from 6 to 11 years, and 60 typically developing (TD) children, who were matched with the children with higher functioning ASD in terms of age, gender, and maternal education. The TD children were drawn from the Finnish standardization sample for the NEPSY-II. The cognitive abilities of the children with higher functioning ASD were assessed with the WISC-III, and the neurocognitive performance of the children with higher functioning ASD and TD children on the NEPSY-II was compared. The children with higher functioning ASD were found to have strengths in verbal reasoning skills with respect to the population mean and weaknesses in set-shifting, verbal fluency, and narrative memory in comparison with the TD children. Minor weaknesses were also observed in facial memory and fine and visuomotor skills.

Better but still biased: Analytic cognitive style and belief bias

Abstract: Belief bias is the tendency for prior beliefs to influence people's deductive reasoning in two ways: through the application of a simple belief-heuristic (response bias) and through the application of more effortful reasoning for unbelievable conclusions (accuracy effect or motivated reasoning). Previous research indicates that cognitive ability is the primary determinant of the effect of beliefs on accuracy. In the current study, we show that the mere tendency to engage analytic reasoning (analytic cognitive style) is responsible for the effect of cognitive ability on motivated reasoning. The implications of this finding for our understanding of the impact of individual differences on belief bias are discussed.

Students' Reasoning in Mathematics Textbook Task-Solving.

Abstract: This study reports on an analysis of students’ textbook task-solving in Swedish upper secondary school The relation between types of mathematical reasoning required, used, and the rate of correct task solutions were studied Rote learning and superficial reasoning were common, and 80% of all attempted tasks were correctly solved using such imitative strategies In the few cases where mathematically founded reasoning was used, all tasks were correctly solved The study suggests that student collaboration and dialogue does not automatically lead to mathematically founded reasoning and deeper learning In particular, in the often common case where the student simply copies a solution from another student without receiving or asking for mathematical justification, it may even be a disadvantage for learning to collaborate The results also show that textbooks’ worked examples and theory sections are not used as an aid by the student in task-solving

Investigation of Response Changes in the GRE Revised General Test

Abstract: Research on examinees’ response changes on multiple-choice tests over the past 80 years has yielded some consistent findings, including that most examinees make score gains by changing answers. This study expands the research on response changes by focusing on a high-stakes admissions test—the Verbal Reasoning and Quantitative Reasoning measures of the GRE revised General Test. We analyzed data from 8,538 examinees for Quantitative and 9,140 for Verbal sections who took the GRE revised General Test in 12 countries. The analyses yielded findings consistent with prior research. In addition, as examinees’ ability increases, the benefit of response changing increases. The study yielded significant implications for both test agencies and test takers. Computer adaptive tests often do not allow the test takers to review and revise. Findings from this study confirm the benefit of such features.

Principal Component Analysis of the PEAK Relational Training System

Abstract: The purpose of the present study was to examine the underlying constructs within the Promoting the Emergence of Advanced Knowledge (PEAK) Relational Training System Direct Training Module. Ninety-eight children with Autism or other developmental and intellectual disabilities were evaluated using the PEAK Direct Training Assessment, which endorsed the presence or absence of 184 possible skills within their repertoire. Following this evaluation, a Principal Component Analysis was run which yielded a four-factor model of the PEAK Direct Training Module. Specifically, factors that possessed Eigenvalues greater than three were retained. Items were loaded onto each factor based on their correlation scores within a final rotated component structure matrix. The resulting four-factor model includes the constructs of Foundational Learning Skills, Perceptual Learning Skills, Verbal Comprehension Skills, and Verbal Reasoning, Memory, and Mathematical Skills. In an era of movement towards evidence-based practices, the present data provide support for PEAK system as a conceptually systematic approach to the treatment of children with autism.

Child predictors of learning to control variables via instruction or self-discovery

Abstract: We examined the role child factors on the acquisition and transfer of learning the control of variables strategy (CVS) via instruction or self-discovery. Seventy-six fourth graders and 43 sixth graders were randomly assigned to a group receiving direct CVS instruction or a discovery learning group. Prior to the intervention, cognitive, scientific, and linguistic child factors were assessed. Acquisition and transfer of CVS knowledge were measured before and after intervention. Outcomes showed that CVS acquisition and transfer learning gains were higher for the instruction group than for the discovery group. Variation in CVS acquisition learning gains was explained by CVS pretest, verbal reasoning skills, and reading comprehension in the discovery group only. Variation in transfer gains were explained by vocabulary in the instruction group and by CVS prestest, verbal reasoning, vocabulary, and reading comprehension in the discovery group. It can be concluded that instruction provides a more effective method for learning CVS since individual differences in the instruction group played a marginal role explaining CVS posttest. However, since individual differences in linguistic ability account for variation in CVS learning gains discovery learning, these should be taken into consideration when teaching CVS in a more discovery-based manner.

Applying a Multiple Group Causal Indicator Modeling Framework to the Reading Comprehension Skills of Third, Seventh, and Tenth Grade Students.

Abstract: This study demonstrates the utility of applying a causal indicator modeling framework to investigate important predictors of reading comprehension in third, seventh, and tenth grade students. The results indicated that a 4-factor multiple indicator multiple indicator cause (MIMIC) model of reading comprehension provided adequate fit at each grade level. This model included latent predictor constructs of decoding, verbal reasoning, nonverbal reasoning, and working memory and accounted for a large portion of the reading comprehension variance (73% to 87%) across grade levels. Verbal reasoning contributed the most unique variance to reading comprehension at all grade levels. In addition, we fit a multiple group 4-factor MIMIC model to investigate the relative stability (or variability) of the predictor contributions to reading comprehension across development (i.e., grade levels). The results revealed that the contributions of verbal reasoning, nonverbal reasoning, and working memory to reading comprehension were stable across the three grade levels. Decoding was the only predictor that could not be constrained to be equal across grade levels. The contribution of decoding skills to reading comprehension was higher in third grade and then remained relatively stable between seventh and tenth grade. These findings illustrate the feasibility of using MIMIC models to explain individual differences in reading comprehension across the development of reading skills.

Moral decision-making by analogy: generalizations versus exemplars

Abstract: Moral reasoning is important to model accurately as AI systems become ever more integrated into our lives. Moral reasoning is rapid and unconscious; analogical reasoning, which can be unconscious, is a promising approach to model moral reasoning. This paper explores the use of analogical generalizations to improve moral reasoning. Analogical reasoning has already been used successfully to model moral reasoning in the MoralDM model, but it exhaustively matches across all known cases, which is computationally intractable and cognitively implausible for human-scale knowledge bases. We investigate the performance of an extension of MoralDM to use the MAC/FAC model of analogical retrieval over three conditions, across a set of highly confusable moral scenarios.

Neural basis of nonanalytical reasoning expertise during clinical evaluation

Abstract: Introduction Understanding clinical reasoning is essential for patient care and medical education. Dual-processing theory suggests that nonanalytic reasoning is an essential aspect of expertise; however, assessing nonanalytic reasoning is challenging because it is believed to occur on the subconscious level. This assumption makes concurrent verbal protocols less reliable assessment tools. Methods Functional magnetic resonance imaging was used to explore the neural basis of nonanalytic reasoning in internal medicine interns (novices) and board-certified staff internists (experts) while completing United States Medical Licensing Examination and American Board of Internal Medicine multiple-choice questions. Results The results demonstrated that novices and experts share a common neural network in addition to nonoverlapping neural resources. However, experts manifested greater neural processing efficiency in regions such as the prefrontal cortex during nonanalytical reasoning. Conclusions These findings reveal a multinetwork system that supports the dual-process mode of expert clinical reasoning during medical evaluation.

Experts and laymen grossly underestimate the benefits of argumentation for reasoning

Abstract: Many fields of study have shown that group discussion generally improves reasoning performance for a wide range of tasks. This article shows that most of the population, including specialists, does not expect group discussion to be as beneficial as it is. Six studies asked participants to solve a standard reasoning problem—the Wason selection task—and to estimate the performance of individuals working alone and in groups. We tested samples of U.S., Indian, and Japanese participants, European managers, and psychologists of reasoning. Every sample underestimated the improvement yielded by group discussion. They did so even after they had been explained the correct answer, or after they had had to solve the problem in groups. These mistaken intuitions could prevent individuals from making the best of institutions that rely on group discussion, from collaborative learning and work teams to deliberative assemblies.

An In-Depth Look at Dispositional Reasoning and Interviewer Accuracy

Abstract: Dispositional reasoning is defined as general reasoning about traits, behaviors, and situations. Although earlier accuracy studies found that it predicted interview judgment accuracy, they did not distinguish between its underlying components (i.e., trait induction, trait extrapolation, and trait contextualization). This drawback has hampered insight into the nature of the dispositional reasoning construct. Therefore, we use a componential approach to test if dispositional reasoning adheres to classical criteria for an intelligence. Results from 146 managerial interviewers who observed videotaped interviewees showed that the dispositional reasoning components had positive manifold and predicted interview accuracy. Moreover, they demonstrated discriminant validity with personality and incremental validity over cognitive ability in predicting interview accuracy. Together, findings suggest that dispositional reasoning broadly adheres to the classical criteria for an intelligence.

How Diagrams Can Support Syllogistic Reasoning: An Experimental Study

Abstract: This paper explores the question of what makes diagrammatic representations effective for human logical reasoning, focusing on how Euler diagrams support syllogistic reasoning. It is widely held that diagrammatic representations aid intuitive understanding of logical reasoning. In the psychological literature, however, it is still controversial whether and how Euler diagrams can aid untrained people to successfully conduct logical reasoning such as set-theoretic and syllogistic reasoning. To challenge the negative view, we build on the findings of modern diagrammatic logic and introduce an Euler-style diagrammatic representation system that is designed to avoid problems inherent to a traditional version of Euler diagrams. It is hypothesized that Euler diagrams are effective not only in interpreting sentential premises but also in reasoning about semantic structures implicit in given sentences. To test the hypothesis, we compared Euler diagrams with other types of diagrams having different syntactic or semantic properties. Experiment compared the difference in performance between syllogistic reasoning with Euler diagrams and Venn diagrams. Additional analysis examined the case of a linear variant of Euler diagrams, in which set-relationships are represented by one-dimensional lines. The experimental results provide evidence supporting our hypothesis. It is argued that the efficacy of diagrams in supporting syllogistic reasoning crucially depends on the way they represent the relational information contained in categorical sentences.

The relationship between the development of response inhibition and intelligence in preschool children.

Abstract: Building on the theoretical framework that intellectual behavior relies on one’s ability to process both task-relevant and task-irrelevant information, this study aimed to empirically investigate the association of response inhibition with intelligence in preschool children’s development. In a sample of 152 typically developing children aged between 3.6 and 6.6 years, we found evidence that suggests that inhibitory control is linked to age-related differences in intelligence. Stop-signal inhibition improved at a rate similar to the age-related changes in Verbal IQ. Components of variance analyses revealed that stop-signal reaction time predicted a larger proportion of the age-related variance in children’s verbal intelligence than non-age-related variance. Results are discussed with respect to possible explanations for this intriguing relationship between response inhibition and the verbal aspects of intelligence.

What I see is not quite the way it really is: students’ emergent reasoning about sampling variability

Abstract: Currently, instruction pays little attention to the development of students’ sampling variability reasoning in relation to statistical inference. In this paper, we briefly discuss the especially designed sampling variability learning experiences students aged about 15 engaged in as part of a research project. We examine assessment and interview responses from four students to describe their emergent reasoning about sampling variability. Their reasoning is analyzed using our adaptations of a statistical inference framework and a mental processes framework. Our findings suggest that these students are beginning to develop understanding of sampling variability concepts from probabilistic and generalization perspectives and to articulate the evidence used from the data. We conjecture that these students’ understanding of sampling variability is aided by the development in instruction of the three mental processes of visualization, analysis, and verbal description.

How do gut feelings feature in tutorial dialogues on diagnostic reasoning in GP traineeship

Abstract: Diagnostic reasoning is considered to be based on the interaction between analytical and non-analytical cognitive processes. Gut feelings, a specific form of non-analytical reasoning, play a substantial role in diagnostic reasoning by general practitioners (GPs) and may activate analytical reasoning. In GP traineeships in the Netherlands, trainees mostly see patients alone but regularly consult with their supervisors to discuss patients and problems, receive feedback, and improve their competencies. In the present study, we examined the discussions of supervisors and their trainees about diagnostic reasoning in these so-called tutorial dialogues and how gut feelings feature in these discussions. 17 tutorial dialogues focussing on diagnostic reasoning were video-recorded and transcribed and the protocols were analysed using a detailed bottom-up and iterative content analysis and coding procedure. The dialogues were segmented into quotes. Each quote received a content code and a participant code. The number of words per code was used as a unit of analysis to quantitatively compare the contributions to the dialogues made by supervisors and trainees, and the attention given to different topics. The dialogues were usually analytical reflections on a trainee’s diagnostic reasoning. A hypothetico-deductive strategy was often used, by listing differential diagnoses and discussing what information guided the reasoning process and might confirm or exclude provisional hypotheses. Gut feelings were discussed in seven dialogues. They were used as a tool in diagnostic reasoning, inducing analytical reflection, sometimes on the entire diagnostic reasoning process. The emphasis in these tutorial dialogues was on analytical components of diagnostic reasoning. Discussing gut feelings in tutorial dialogues seems to be a good educational method to familiarize trainees with non-analytical reasoning. Supervisors need specialised knowledge about these aspects of diagnostic reasoning and how to deal with them in medical education.