Journal ArticleDOI
Statistics of atomic frequency standards
David W. Allan
- Vol. 54, Iss: 2, pp 221-230
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TLDR
In this paper, a theoretical analysis of the relationship between the expectation value of the standard deviation of the frequency fluctuations for any finite number of data samples and the infinite time average value of a standard deviation is presented.Abstract:
A theoretical development is presented which results in a relationship between the expectation value of the standard deviation of the frequency fluctuations for any finite number of data samples and the infinite time average value of the standard deviation, which provides an invariant measure of an important quality factor of a frequency standard. A practical and straightforward method of determining the power spectral density of the frequency fluctuations from the variance of the frequency fluctuations, the sampling time, the number of samples taken, and the dependence on system bandwidth is also developed. Additional insight is also given into some of the problems that arise from the presence of "flicker noise" (spectrum proportional to |ω|-1) modulation of the frequency of an oscillator. The theory is applied in classifying the types of noise on the signals of frequency standards made available at NBS, Boulder Laboratories, such as: masers (both H and N15H 3 ), the cesium beam frequency standard employed as the U. S. Frequency Standard, and rubidium gas cells. "Flicker noise" frequency modulation was not observed on the signals of masers for sampling times ranging from 0.1 second to 4 hours. In a comparison between the NBS hydrogen maser and the NBS III cesium beam, uncorrelated random noise was observed on the frequency fluctuations for sampling times extending to 4 hours; the fractional standard deviations of the frequency fluctuations were as low as 5 parts in 1014.read more
Citations
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Characterization of frequency stability in precision frequency sources
J. Rutman,Fred L. Walls +1 more
TL;DR: In this paper, a short review of the progress that has occurred during years 1955-91 in both the theoretical and practical characterization of frequency stability of precision frequency sources is presented, focusing on the evolution of ideas and concepts for the characterization of random noise processes in such standards in the time domain and the Fourier frequency domain, rather than a rigorous mathematical treatment of the problem.
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Fractal character of the neural spike train in the visual system of the cat.
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Uncertainties in, and interpretation of, carbon flux estimates using the eddy covariance technique
Henry W. Loescher,Beverly E. Law,Larry Mahrt,David Y. Hollinger,John Campbell,Steven C. Wofsy +5 more
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Terahertz heterodyne receiver based on a quantum cascade laser and a superconducting bolometer
Jian-Rong Gao,J. N. Hovenier,Z. Q. Yang,Jochem J. A. Baselmans,Andrey M. Baryshev,M. Hajenius,T. M. Klapwijk,Aurèle J. L. Adam,Tjeerd O. Klaassen,Benjamin S. Williams,Sushil Kumar,Qing Hu,John L. Reno +12 more
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References
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Journal ArticleDOI
An Introduction to Fourier Analysis and Generalized Functions.
R. A. Kunze,M. J. Lighthill +1 more
TL;DR: The theory of generalised functions and their Fourier transforms is discussed in this paper. But the analysis of Fourier transform is limited to the case of generalized functions, and it is not suitable for generalised function analysis.
Journal ArticleDOI
Some aspects of the theory and measurement of frequency fluctuations in frequency standards
Leonard S. Cutler,C. L. Searle +1 more
TL;DR: In this article, the effects of finite observation time on the frequency and phase stability of a servo-controlled oscillator with respect to a given quartz oscillator and an atomic reference are analyzed.
Journal ArticleDOI
Atomic timekeeping and the statistics of precision signal generators
TL;DR: In this paper, a detailed analysis of the calibration procedure showed that the third finite difference of the phase is closely related to the clock errors and that quartz crystal oscillators exhibit a "flicker" or |ω|-1type of noise modulating the frequency of the oscillator.
Atomic timekeeping and the statistics of precision signal generators
TL;DR: The method of finite differences of the phase is shown to be a powerful means of classifying the statistical fluctuations of thephase and frequency for signal generators in general and by employing finite differences it is possible to avoid divergences normally associated with flicker noise spectra.
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