Showing papers on "Continental margin published in 2005"

Post-Collisional Transition from Subduction- to Intraplate-type Magmatism in the Westernmost Mediterranean: Evidence for Continental-Edge Delamination of Subcontinental Lithosphere

Abstract: Post-collisional magmatism in the southern Iberian and northwestern African continental margins contains important clues for the understanding of a possible causal connection between movements in the Earth's upper mantle, the uplift of continental lithosphere and the origin of circum-Mediterranean igneous activity. Systematic geochemical and geochronological studies (major and trace element, Sr–Nd–Pb-isotope analysis and laser 40Ar/39Ar-age dating) on igneous rocks provide constraints for understanding the post-collisional history of the southern Iberian and northwestern African continental margins. Two groups of magmatic rocks can be distinguished: (1) an Upper Miocene to Lower Pliocene (8·2–4·8 Ma), Si–K-rich group including high-K (calc-alkaline) and shoshonitic series rocks; (2) an Upper Miocene to Pleistocene (6·3–0·65 Ma), Si-poor, Na-rich group including basanites and alkali basalts to hawaiites and tephrites. Mafic samples from the Si–K-rich group generally show geochemical affinities with volcanic rocks from active subduction zones (e.g. Izu–Bonin and Aeolian island arcs), whereas mafic samples from the Si-poor, Na-rich group are geochemically similar to lavas found in intraplate volcanic settings derived from sub-lithospheric mantle sources (e.g. Canary Islands). The transition from Si-rich (subduction-related) to Si-poor (intraplate-type) magmatism between 6·3 Ma (first alkali basalt) and 4·8 Ma (latest shoshonite) can be observed both on a regional scale and in individual volcanic systems. Si–K-rich and Si-poor igneous rocks from the continental margins of southern Iberia and northwestern Africa are, respectively, proposed to have been derived from metasomatized subcontinental lithosphere and sub-lithospheric mantle that was contaminated with plume material. A three-dimensional geodynamic model for the westernmost Mediterranean is presented in which subduction of oceanic lithosphere is inferred to have caused continental-edge delamination of subcontinental lithosphere associated with upwelling of plume-contaminated sub-lithospheric mantle and lithospheric uplift. This process may operate worldwide in areas where subduction-related and intraplate-type magmatism are spatially and temporally associated.

Sea-Floor Tectonics and Submarine Hydrothermal Systems

Abstract: The discovery of metal-depositing hot springs on the sea floor, and especially their link to chemosynthetic life, was among the most compelling and significant scientific advances of the twentieth century. More than 300 sites of hydrothermal activity and sea-floor mineralization are known on the ocean floor. About 100 of these are sites of high-temperature venting and polymetallic sulfide deposits. They occur at mid-ocean ridges (65%), in back-arc basins (22%), and on submarine volcanic arcs (12%). Although high-temperature, 350°C, black smoker vents are the most recognizable features of sea-floor hydrothermal activity, a wide range of different styles of mineralization has been found. Different volcanic substrates, including mid-ocean ridge basalt, ultramafic intrusive rocks, and more evolved volcanic suites in both oceanic and continental crust, as well as temperature-dependent solubility controls, account for the main geochemical associations found in the deposits. Although end-member hydrothermal fluids mainly originate in the deep volcanic basement, the presence of sediments and other substrates can have a large effect on the compositions of the vent fluids. In arc and backarc settings, vent fluid compositions are broadly similar to those at mid-ocean ridges, but the arc magmas also supply a number of components to the hydrothermal fluids. The majority of known black smoker vents occur on fast-spreading mid-ocean ridges, but the largest massive sulfide deposits are located at intermediate- and slow-spreading centers, at ridge-axis volcanoes, in deep backarc basins, and in sedimented rifts adjacent to continental margins. The range of deposit sizes in these settings is similar to that of ancient volcanic-associated massive sulfide (VMS) deposits. Detailed mapping, and in some cases drilling, indicates that a number of deposits contain 1 to 5 million tons (Mt) of massive sulfide (e.g., TAG hydrothermal field on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, deposits of the Galapagos Rift, and at 13°N on the East Pacific Rise). Two sediment-hosted deposits, at Middle Valley on the Juan de Fuca Ridge and in the Atlantis II Deep of the Red Sea, are much larger (up to 15 and 90 Mt, respectively). In the western Pacific, high-temperature hydrothermal systems occur mainly at intraoceanic back-arc spreading centers (e.g., Lau basin, North Fiji basin, Mariana trough) and in arc-related rifts at continental margins (e.g., Okinawa trough). In contrast to the mid-ocean ridges, convergent margin settings are characterized by a range of different crustal thicknesses and compositions, variable heat flow regimes, and diverse magma types. These variations result in major differences in the compositions and isotopic systematics of the hydrothermal fluids and the mineralogy and bulk compositions of the associated mineral deposits. Intraoceanic back-arc basin spreading centers host black smoker vents that, for the most part, are very similar to those on the mid-ocean ridges. However, isotopic data from both the volcanic rocks and the sulfide deposits highlight the importance of subduction recycling in the origin of the magmas and hydrothermal fluids. Back-arc rifts in continental margin settings are typically sediment-filled basins, which derive their sediment load from the adjacent continental shelf. This has an insulating effect that enhances the high heat flow associated with rifting of the continental crust and also helps to preserve the contained sulfide deposits. Large hydrothermal systems have developed where initial rifting of continental crust or locally thickened arc crust has formed large calderalike sea-floor depressions, similar to those that contained major VMS-forming systems in the geologic record. Hydrothermal vents also occur in the summit calderas of submarine volcanoes at the volcanic fronts of arcs. However, this contrasts with the interpreted settings of most ancient VMS deposits, which are considered to have formed mainly during arc rifting. Hydrothermal vents associated with arc volcanoes show clear evidence of the direct input of magmatic volatiles, similar to magmatic-hydrothermal systems in subaerial volcanic arcs. Several compelling examples of submarine epithermal-style mineralization, including gold-base metal veins, have been found on submarine arc volcanoes,and this type of mineralization may be more common than is presently recognized. Mapping and sampling of the sea floor has dramatically improved geodynamic models of different submarine volcanic and tectonic settings and has helped to establish a framework for the characterization of many similar ancient terranes. Deposits forming at convergent margins are considered to be the closest analogs of ancient VMS. However, black smokers on the mid-ocean ridges continue to provide critically important information about metal transport and deposition in sea-floor hydrothermal systems of all types. Ongoing sea-floor exploration in other settings is providing clues to the diversity of mineral deposit types that occur in different environments and the conditions that are favorable for their formation.

The importance of continental margins in the global carbon cycle

Abstract: [1] Approximately half of the world's net annual photosynthesis occurs in the oceans (∼48 Pg C y−1). Areas bordering continents (bottom 40% of the carbon sequestration in the ocean. These regions must be accounted for in realistic models of the global carbon cycle and its linkages to climate change.

Subduction zone backarcs, mobile belts, and orogenic heat

Abstract: Two important problems of continental tectonics may be resolved by recognizing that most subduction zone backarcs have hot, thin, and weak lithospheres over considerable widths. These are (1) the origin of long-lived active “mobile belts” contrasted to the stability of cratons and platforms, and (2) the origin of the heat of continental collision orogeny. At many continental margin plate boundaries, there are broad belts with a long history of distributed deformation. These regions are mobile because the lithosphere is sufficiently weak to

Zonation of Deep Biota on Continental Margins

Abstract: Pioneering deep-sea surveys established that the fauna of the continental margins is zoned in the sense that individual species and assemblages occupy restricted depth bands. It has been speculated that the causes of this wide-spread pattern might involve cold temperatures, high pressures and limited food availability. Increased sampling over the past two decades has confirmed the global presence of depth zonation. Well-defined zonation in the cold polar oceans and the warm Mediterranean indicate that temperature per se may be of less importance on ecological timescales than originally proposed. Strong alternatives are range restriction by pressure and food availability. Understanding of pressure physiology has advanced greatly, and it is to be expected that all deep organisms possess some form of genetic adaptation for pressure tolerance. Since high pressure and low temperatures affect membrane and enzyme systems similarly, combined piezo-thermal thresholds may limit depth ranges. There is a negative, exponential gradient of food availability caused by the decrease in labile carbon influx to bottom. The TROX model linking carbon influx with interstitial oxygen levels has been successful in explaining deep distributions of benthic Foraminifera and may be more broadly applicable. Current efforts to relate metazoan ranges to food availability are, however, hindered by limited understanding of how organisms recognise and utilise the nutritious content of detritus. Thus, the exact controls of depth zonation remain conjectural. Zonation studies are gaining in importance due to the increasing availability of deep fauna databases and the need to establish regulatory boundaries. Future studies may benefit from a growing body of biogeographic theory, especially the understanding of bounded domains. It is proposed that continental slope fauna may be more effectively studied if viewed as the overlapping of three components: species extending down from the shelf, species extending up from the abyss and species truly restricted to the slope.

3D seismic interpretation of slump complexes: examples from the continental margin of Israel

Abstract: This paper uses three-dimensional (3D) seismic data from the continental margin of Israel (Eastern Mediterranean) to describe a series of slump deposits within the Pliocene and Holocene succession. These slumps are linked to the dynamics of subsidence and deformation of the transform margin of the eastern Mediterranean. Repeated slope failure occurred during the post-Messinian, when a clay dominated progradational successionwas forming. This resulted in large- scale slump deposits accumulating in the mid-lower slope region of the basin at different stratigraphic levels. It is probable that the slumps were triggered by a combination of slope oversteepening, seismic activity and gas migration. The high spatial resolution provided by the 3D seismic data has been used to define a spectrum of internal and external geometries within slump deposits. Importantly, we recognise twomain zones for many of the slumps on this margin: a depletion zone and an accumulation zone. The former is characterised by extension and translation, and the latter by complex imbricate thrusts and fold systems. Volume-based seismic attribute analysis reveals transport directions within the slump deposits, which are predominately downslope, but with subtle variations particularly at the lateral margins. Basal shear surfaces are observed to ramp both up and down stratigraphy. Slump evolution occurs both by retrogressive upslope failure, and by downslope propagation (out- of- sequence) failure. Slump anatomy and the combination of factors responsible for slump failure and transport are relatively poorly understood, mainly because of the limited 3D of outcrop control; hence, this subsurface study is an example of how improved understanding of the mechanisms and products can be obtained using this 3D seismic methodology in unstable margin areas.

Neotectonic architecture of Taiwan and its implications for future large earthquakes

Abstract: The disastrous effects of the 1999 Chi-Chi earthquake in Taiwan demonstrated an urgent need for better knowledge of the island's potential earthquake sources. Toward this end, we have prepared a neotectonic map of Taiwan. The map and related cross sections are based upon structural and geomorphic expression of active faults and folds both in the field and on shaded relief maps prepared from a 40-m resolution digital elevation model, augmented by geodetic and seismologic data. The active tandem suturing and tandem disengagement of a volcanic arc and a continental sliver to and from the Eurasian continental margin have created two neotectonic belts in Taiwan. In the southern part of the orogen both belts are in the final stage of consuming oceanic crust. Collision and suturing occur in the middle part of both belts, and postcollisional collapse and extension dominate the island's northern and northeastern flanks. Both belts consist of several distinct neotectonic domains. Seven domains (Kaoping, Chiayi, Taichung, Miaoli, Hsinchu, Ilan, and Taipei) constitute the western belt, and four domains (Lutao-Lanyu, Taitung, Hualien, and Ryukyu) make up the eastern belt. Each domain is defined by a distinct suite of active structures. For example, the Chelungpu fault (source of the 1999 earthquake) and its western neighbor, the Changhua fault, are the principal components of the Taichung Domain, whereas both its neighboring domains, the Chiayi and Miaoli Domains, are dominated by major blind faults. In most of the domains the size of the principal active fault is large enough to produce future earthquakes with magnitudes in the mid-7 values.

Focused fluid flow in passive continental margins

Abstract: Passive continental margins such as the Atlantic seaboard of Europe are important for society as they contain large energy resources, and they sustain ecosystems that are the basis for the commercial fish stock. The margin sediments are very dynamic environments. Fluids are expelled from compacting sediments, bottom water temperature changes cause gas hydrate systems to change their locations and occasionally large magmatic intrusions boil the pore water within the sedimentary basins, which is then expelled to the surface. The fluids that seep through the seabed at the tops of focused fluid flow systems have a crucial role for seabed ecology, and study of such fluid flow systems can also help in predicting the distribution of hydrocarbons in the subsurface and deciphering the climate record. Therefore, the study of focused fluid flow will become one of the most important fields in marine geology in the future.

Black shale deposition on the northwest African Shelf during the Cenomanian/Turonian oceanic anoxic event: Climate coupling and global organic carbon burial

Abstract: High-resolution geochemical records from a depth transect through the Cenomanian/Turonian (C/T) Tarfaya Basin (northwest African Shelf) reveal high-amplitude fluctuations in accumulation rates of organic carbon (OC), redox-sensitive and sulphide-forming trace metals, and biomarkers indicative of photic zone euxinia. These fluctuations are in general coeval and thus imply a strong relationship of OC burial and water column redox conditions. The pacing and regularity of the records and the absence of a prominent continental signature suggest a dynamic depositional setting linked to orbital and higher-frequency forcing. Determining the dominant frequency depends on the definition of the most pronounced oceanic anoxic event (OAE2) and its duration. We propose that eccentricity is the main forcing factor at Tarfaya and controlled fluctuations in wind-driven upwelling of nutrient-rich, oxygen-depleted intermediate waters from the adjacent Atlantic and the periodic development of photic zone and bottom water euxinia on the mid-Cretaceous northwest African shelf. Accumulation records clearly identify the basin center as the primary site of sediment deposition with highest temporal variability and an up to six-fold increase in OC burial from similar to2 g/m(2) . yr prior to the OAE2 to similar to12 g/m(2) . yr during the OAE2. Photic zone and bottom water euxinia alternated with periods of greater oxygenation of the water column in response to climate forcing. Mass balance calculations imply that similar to2% of the overall global excess OC burial associated with the OAE2 was deposited in the Tarfaya Basin, an area that represented only similar to0.05% of the total global C/T ocean floor. In fact, the lateral extent of similar black shales along the African continental margin indicates that this part of the ocean contributed significantly to the global increase in organic carbon burial during the OAE2.

Geological constraints on the evolution of the Angolan margin based on reflection and refraction seismic data (ZaïAngo project)

Abstract: SUMMARY Deep penetration multichannel reflection and Ocean Bottom Seismometer wide-angle seismic data from the Congo-Angola margin were collected in 2000 during the Za¨ iAngo cruise. These data help constrain the deep structure of the continental margin, the geometry of the pre-salt sediment layers and the geometry of the Aptian salt layer. Dating the deposition of the salt relative to the chronology of the margin formation is an issue of fundamental importance for reconstructing the evolution of the margin and for the understanding of the crustal thinning processes. The data show that the crust thins abruptly, from a 30-40 km thickness to less than 10 km, over a lateral distance of less than 50 km. The transitional domain is a 180-km-wide basin. The pre-salt sediment layering within this basin is parallel to the base of the salt and hardly affected by tectonic deformation. In addition, the presence of a continuous salt cover, from the continental platform down to the presumed oceanic boundary, provides indications on the conditions of salt deposition that constrain the geometry of the margin at that time. These crucial observations imply shallow deposition environments during the rifting and suggest that vertical motions prevailed—compared to horizontal motions—during the formation of the basin.

Pre-collisional high pressure metamorphism and nappe tectonics at active continental margins: a numerical simulation

Abstract: The evolution of a subduction channel and orogenic wedge is simulated in 2D for an active continental margin, with P-T paths being displayed for selected markers. In our simulation, subduction erosion affects the active margin and a structural pattern develops within a few tens of millions of years, with four zones from the trench into the forearc: (i) an accretionary complex of low grade metamorphic sedimentary material, (ii) a wedge of nappes with alternating upper and lower crustal provenance, and minor interleaving of oceanic or hydrated mantle material, (iii) a megascale melange composed of high pressure (HP) and ultra-high pressure (UHP) metamorphic rocks extruded from the subduction channel, and (iv) the upward tilted frontal part of the remaining lid. The P‐T paths and time scales correspond to those typically recorded in orogenic belts. The simulation shows that HP/UHP metamorphism of continental crust does not necessarily indicate collision, but that the material can be derived from the active margin by subduction erosion and extruded from the subduction channel beneath the forearc during ongoing subduction.

Alpine and Pacific styles of Phanerozoic mountain building: subduction‐zone petrogenesis of continental crust

Abstract: A broad continuum exists between two distinct end-member types of mountain building. Alpine-type orogenic belts develop during subduction of an ocean basin between two continental blocks, resulting in collision. They are characterized by an imbricate sequence of oceanward verging nappes; some Alpine belts exhibit superimposed late-stage backthrusting. Sediments are chiefly platform carbonates and siliciclastics, in some cases associated with minor amounts of bimodal volcanics; pre-existing granitic gneisses and related continental rocks constitute an autochthonous–parautochthonous basement. Metamorphism of deeply subducted portions of the orogen ranges from relatively high-pressure (HP) to ultrahigh-pressure (UHP). Calcalkaline volcanic–plutonic rocks are rare, and have peraluminous, S-type bulk compositions. In contrast, Pacific-type orogens develop within and landward from long-sustained oceanic subduction zones. They consist of an outboard oceanic trench–accretionary prism, and an inboard continental margin–island arc. The oceanic assemblage consists of first-cycle, in-part melanged volcaniclastics, and minor but widespread cherts ± deep-water carbonates, intimately mixed with disaggregated ophiolites. The section recrystallized under HP conditions. Recumbent fold vergence is oceanward. A massive, slightly older to coeval calcalkaline arc is sited landward from the trench complex on the stable, non-subducted plate. It consists of abundant, dominantly intermediate, metaluminous, I-type volcanics resting on old crust; both assemblages are thrown into open folds, intruded by comagmatic I-type granitoids, and metamorphosed locally to regionally under high-T, low-P conditions. In the subduction channel of collisional and outboard Circumpacific terranes, combined extension above and subduction below allows buoyancy-driven ascent of ductile, thin-aspect ratio slices of HP–UHP complexes to midcrustal levels, where most closely approached neutral buoyancy; exposure of rising sheets caused by erosion and gravitational collapse results in moderate amounts of sedimentary debris because exhumed sialic slivers are of modest volume. At massive sialic buildups associated with convergent plate cuSPS (syntaxes), tectonic aneurysms may help transport HP–UHP complexes from mid- to upper-crustal levels. The closure of relatively small ocean basins that typify many intracratonic suture zones provides only limited production of intermediate and silicic melts, so volcanic–plutonic belts are poorly developed in Alpine orogens compared with Circumpacific convergent plate junctions. Generation of a calcalkaline arc mainly depends on volatile evolution at the depth of magma generation. Phase equilibrium studies show that, under typical subduction-zone P–T trajectories, clinoamphibole ± Ca–Al hydrous silicates constitute the major hydroxyl-bearing phases in deep-seated metamorphic rocks of MORB composition; other hydrous minerals are of minor abundance. Ca and Na clinoamphiboles dehydrate at pressures of above approximately 2 GPa, but low-temperature devolatilization may be delayed by pressure overstepping; thus metabasaltic blueschists and amphibolites expel H2O at melt-generation depths, and commonly achieve stable eclogitic assemblages. Partly serpentinized mantle beneath the oceanic crust dehydrates at roughly comparable conditions. For reasonable subduction-zone geothermal gradients however, white micas ± biotites remain stable to pressures >3 GPa. Accordingly, attending descent to depths of >100 km, mica-rich quartzofeldspathic lithologies that constitute much of the continental crust fail to evolve substantial amounts of H2O, and transform incompletely to stable eclogite-facies assemblages. Underflow of amphibolitized oceanic lithosphere thus generates most of the deep-seated volatile flux, and the consequent partial melting to produce the calcalkaline suite, along and above a subduction zone; where large volumes of micaceous intermediate and felsic crustal materials are carried down to great depths, volatile flux severely diminishes. Thus, continental collision in general does not produce a volcanic–plutonic arc whereas in contrast, the long-continued contemporaneous underflow of oceanic lithosphere does.

Late Paleozoic Sedimentation on the Northern Margin of the North China Block: Implications for Regional Tectonics and Climate Change

Abstract: The Late Paleozoic collision between the North China continental block and the Altaid arc terranes of Mongolia represents one of the earliest and most fundamental tectonic events in the ongoing construction of Asia. New detrital zircon provenance data from Carboniferous-Permian nonmarine strata on the northern margin of North China imply that the northern margin of the North China block constituted a continental margin arc prior to this collision (~400-275 Ma) and that collision took place via south-directed subduction beneath North China. A significant and widespread climate change took place in North China in mid-Permian time, and is recorded by a change from Carboniferous and Lower Permian humid-climate, coal-bearing sedimentary facies to Upper Permian and Lower Triassic arid-climate redbeds. In northern North China, this climate change is accompanied by a paleocurrent reversal, which indicates the onset of uplift on the northern margin of the North China block. The temporal association of climate chan...

An updated global earthquake catalogue for stable continental regions: reassessing the correlation with ancient rifts

Abstract: SUMMARY We present an updated global earthquake catalogue for stable continental regions (SCRs; i.e. intraplate earthquakes) that is available on the Internet. Our database contains information on location, magnitude, seismic moment and focal mechanisms for over 1300 M (moment magnitude) ≥ 4.5 historic and instrumentally recorded crustal events. Using this updated earthquake database in combination with a recently published global catalogue of rifts, we assess the correlation of intraplate seismicity with ancient rifts on a global scale. Each tectonic event is put into one of five categories based on location: (i) interior rifts/taphrogens, (ii) rifted continental margins, (iii) non-rifted crust, (iv) possible interior rifts and (v) possible rifted margins. We find that approximately 27 per cent of all events are classified as interior rifts (i), 25 per cent are rifted continental margins (ii), 36 per cent are within non-rifted crust (iii) and 12 per cent (iv and v) remain uncertain. Thus, over half (52 per cent) of all events are associated with rifted crust, although within the continental interiors (i.e. away from continental margins), non-rifted crust has experienced more earthquakes than interior rifts. No major change in distribution is found if only large (M≥ 6.0) earthquakes are considered. The largest events (M≥ 7.0) however, have occurred predominantly within rifts (50 per cent) and continental margins (43 per cent). Intraplate seismicity is not distributed evenly. Instead several zones of concentrated seismicity seem to exist. This is especially true for interior rifts/taphrogens, where a total of only 12 regions are responsible for 74 per cent of all events and as much as 98 per cent of all seismic moment released in that category. Of the four rifts/taphrogens that have experienced the largest earthquakes, seismicity within the Kutch rift, India, and the East China rift system, may be controlled by diffuse plate boundary deformation more than by the presence of the ancient rifts themselves. The St. Lawrence depression, Canada, besides being an ancient rift, is also the site of a major collisional suture. Thus only at the Reelfoot rift (New Madrid seismic zone, NMSZ, USA), is the presence of features associated with rifting itself the sole candidate for causing seismicity. Our results suggest that on a global scale, the correlation of seismicity within SCRs and ancient rifts has been overestimated in the past. Because the majority of models used to explain intraplate seismicity have focused on seismicity within rifts, we conclude that a shift in attention more towards non-rifted as well as rifted crust is in order.

Orbital forcing of Cretaceous river discharge in tropical Africa and ocean response.

Abstract: Continental margins are extremely sensitive to climate change, so it is important to understand how they might respond to extreme warm conditions. Changes in productivity, ocean chemistry and carbon cycling in the equatorial Atlantic during the ‘greenhouse’ climate interval in the mid-Cretaceous period point to river runoff as an important factor in the coastal ocean ecosystem. High discharge rates of continental freshwater led to dramatic changes in ocean productivity and to a lack of oxygen in the coastal ocean. The tropics have been suggested as the drivers of global ocean and atmosphere circulation and biogeochemical cycling during the extreme warmth of the Cretaceous period1,2; but the links between orbital forcing, freshwater runoff and the biogeochemistry of continental margins in extreme greenhouse conditions are not fully understood. Here we present Cretaceous records of geochemical tracers for freshwater runoff obtained from a sediment core off the Ivory Coast that indicate that alternating periods of arid and humid African climate were driven by orbital precession. Our simulations of the precession-driven patterns of river discharge with a global climate model suggest that ocean anoxia and black shale sedimentation were directly caused by high river discharge, and occurred specifically when the northern equinox coincided with perihelion (the minimum distance between the Sun and the Earth). We conclude that, in a warm climate, the oceans off tropical continental margins respond rapidly and sensitively to even modest changes in river discharge.