Showing papers on "Nanobiotechnology published in 2018"
TL;DR: A DNA nanostructure is designed that catalyzes the transport of lipids between bilayers at a rate three orders of magnitude higher than biological enzymes, which opens new avenues for applications of membrane-interacting DNA systems in medicine.
Abstract: Mimicking enzyme function and increasing performance of naturally evolved proteins is one of the most challenging and intriguing aims of nanoscience. Here, we employ DNA nanotechnology to design a synthetic enzyme that substantially outperforms its biological archetypes. Consisting of only eight strands, our DNA nanostructure spontaneously inserts into biological membranes by forming a toroidal pore that connects the membrane’s inner and outer leaflets. The membrane insertion catalyzes spontaneous transport of lipid molecules between the bilayer leaflets, rapidly equilibrating the lipid composition. Through a combination of microscopic simulations and fluorescence microscopy we find the lipid transport rate catalyzed by the DNA nanostructure exceeds 107 molecules per second, which is three orders of magnitude higher than the rate of lipid transport catalyzed by biological enzymes. Furthermore, we show that our DNA-based enzyme can control the composition of human cell membranes, which opens new avenues for applications of membrane-interacting DNA systems in medicine.
97 citations
TL;DR: The current preparation techniques for fully artificial exosomes, their explored and future possibilities, and their present limits are outlined.
58 citations
TL;DR: The authors establish at single-molecule level the insertion mechanism and show that DNA nanopores can locally cluster and remodel membranes, and stabilize autonomously formed lipid nanotubes.
Abstract: Synthetically replicating key biological processes requires the ability to puncture lipid bilayer membranes and to remodel their shape. Recently developed artificial DNA nanopores are one possible synthetic route due to their ease of fabrication. However, an unresolved fundamental question is how DNA nanopores bind to and dynamically interact with lipid bilayers. Here we use single-molecule fluorescence microscopy to establish that DNA nanopores carrying cholesterol anchors insert via a two-step mechanism into membranes. Nanopores are furthermore shown to locally cluster and remodel membranes into nanoscale protrusions. Most strikingly, the DNA pores can function as cytoskeletal components by stabilizing autonomously formed lipid nanotubes. The combination of membrane puncturing and remodeling activity can be attributed to the DNA pores’ tunable transition between two orientations to either span or co-align with the lipid bilayer. This insight is expected to catalyze the development of future functional nanodevices relevant in synthetic biology and nanobiotechnology. DNA nanopores can span lipid bilayers but how they interact with lipids is not known. Here the authors establish at single-molecule level the insertion mechanism and show that DNA nanopores can locally cluster and remodel membranes, and stabilize autonomously formed lipid nanotubes.
57 citations
TL;DR: This work reviews and discusses the recent papers dealing with MCNTs and their application in biomedical and industrial fields.
Abstract: Magnetic carbon nanotubes (MCNTs) have been widely studied for their potential applications in medicine, diagnosis, cell biology, analytical chemistry, and environmental technology. Introduction of MCNTs paved the way for the emergence of new approaches in nanobiotechnology and biomedicine as a result of their multifarious properties embedded within either the carbon nanotubes (CNTs) or magnetic parts. Numerous preparation techniques exists for functionalizing CNTs with magnetic nanoparticles, and these versatile strategies lay the ground for the generation of novel and versatile systems which are applicable to many industries and biological areas. Here, we review and discuss the recent papers dealing with MCNTs and their application in biomedical and industrial fields.
57 citations
TL;DR: MagPlas NPs are emerging multi-functional materials in the fields of nanoscale optoelectronics, anisotropic optics, electronics, optical sensing, and imaging and have great application potential in biomedicine and biomed...
Abstract: Most commonly magnetoplasmonic nanoparticles (MagPlas NPs) are unique composites combining magnetic and plasmonic materials within a confined nanoscale area that simultaneously show magnetic and plasmonic characteristics. They generally use Fe, Co, or Ni-based magnetic materials and noble-metal (e.g., Au, Ag, Cu, or Pt) plasmonic components, comprising a precious metal layer along a magnetic core or the inverse structure. MagPlas NPs are emerging multi-functional materials in the fields of nanoscale optoelectronics, anisotropic optics, electronics, optical sensing, and imaging. Their potential for sensing, targeting, and multimodal imaging is highly attractive for nanomedicine and nanobiotechnology. Because they possess suitable biocompatibility, MagPlas NPs have also been used in biosensor systems, hyperthermia, and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) applications. This relatively new field of science employs MagPlas NPs in biological systems, which have great application potential in biomedicine and biomed...
49 citations
TL;DR: Recent studies exploring the driving interactions in nanoparticle-protein systems and resultant structures are presented, and the observed phase behavior and its dependence on various physiochemical parameters have been explained in terms of underlying interactions.
Abstract: The integration of nanoparticles with proteins is of high scientific interest due to the amazing potential displayed by their complexes, combining the nanoscale properties of nanoparticles with the specific architectures and functions of the protein molecules. The nanoparticle–protein complexes, in particular, are useful in the emerging field of nanobiotechnology (nanomedicine, drug delivery, and biosensors) as the nanoparticles having sizes comparable to that of living cells can access and operate within the cell. The understanding of nanoparticle interaction with different protein molecules is a prerequisite for such applications. The interaction of the two components has been shown to result in conformational changes in proteins and to affect the surface properties and colloidal stability of the nanoparticles. In this feature article, our recent studies exploring the driving interactions in nanoparticle–protein systems and resultant structures are presented. The anionic colloidal silica nanoparticles a...
48 citations
TL;DR: A simple yet versatile approach to fabricate a variety of hollow nanowires for broad biomedical device applications and the application of nanostraws in gene transfection is assessed.
32 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, a facile fabrication method for silicon nanoparticles is presented that is scalable to 4 inch wafers and can produce a wide range of nanoparticle shapes on demand.
Abstract: High index dielectric nanoparticles and metasurfaces have been proposed for many different applications, including light harvesting, sensing, and metalenses. However, widespread utilization in practice also requires large-scale fabrication methods able to produce homogeneous structures with engineered optical properties in a cost effective manner. Here, a facile fabrication method for silicon nanoparticles is presented that is scalable to 4 inch wafers and can produce a wide range of nanoparticle shapes on demand. Furthermore, it is shown that the fabricated nanoparticles can be detached from their support using a simple substrate removal technique and then transferred to colloidal suspension. The method is universal in the sense that it can be used to generate monodispersed colloidal solutions of nanoparticles of various shapes, sizes and compositions and it therefore opens up a range of new possibilities for applications, for example in nanomedicine and bionanotechnology.
23 citations
TL;DR: This study demonstrates that the increase of negative surface charge is not a sufficient factor determining successful assembly and additional steric interactions provided by longer ligands are crucial for the assembly of BMV SPION VLPs and may enhance the colloidal stability.
Abstract: Virus-like particles (VLPs) have sparked a great interest in the field of nanobiotechnology and nanomedicine. The introduction of superparamagnetic nanoparticles (SPIONs) as a core, provides potential use of VLPs in the hyperthermia therapy, MRI contrast agents and magnetically-powered delivery agents. Magnetite NPs also provide a significant improvement in terms of VLPs stability. Moreover employing viral structural proteins as self-assembling units has opened a new paths for targeted therapy, drug delivery systems, vaccines design, and many more. In many cases, the self-assembly of a virus strongly depends on electrostatic interactions between positively charged groups of the capsid proteins and negatively charged nucleic acid. This phenomenon imposes the negative net charge as a key requirement for the core nanoparticle. In our experiments, Brome mosaic virus (BMV) capsid proteins isolated from infected plants Hordeum vulgare were used. Superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (Fe3O4) with 15 nm in diameter were synthesized by thermal decomposition and functionalized with COOH-PEG-PL polymer or dihexadecylphosphate (DHP) in order to provide water solubility and negative charge required for the assembly. Nanoparticles were characterized by Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM), Dynamic Light Scattering (DLS), Zeta Potential, Fourier Transformed Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) and Superconducting Quantum Interference Device (SQUID) magnetometry. TEM and DLS study were conducted to verify VLPs creation. This study demonstrates that the increase of negative surface charge is not a sufficient factor determining successful assembly. Additional steric interactions provided by longer ligands are crucial for the assembly of BMV SPION VLPs and may enhance the colloidal stability.Virus-like particles (VLPs) have sparked a great interest in the field of nanobiotechnology and nanomedicine. The introduction of superparamagnetic nanoparticles (SPIONs) as a core, provides potential use of VLPs in the hyperthermia therapy, MRI contrast agents and magnetically-powered delivery agents. Magnetite NPs also provide a significant improvement in terms of VLPs stability. Moreover employing viral structural proteins as self-assembling units has opened a new paths for targeted therapy, drug delivery systems, vaccines design, and many more. In many cases, the self-assembly of a virus strongly depends on electrostatic interactions between positively charged groups of the capsid proteins and negatively charged nucleic acid. This phenomenon imposes the negative net charge as a key requirement for the core nanoparticle. In our experiments, Brome mosaic virus (BMV) capsid proteins isolated from infected plants Hordeum vulgare were used. Superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (Fe3O4) with 15 nm in d...
15 citations
TL;DR: 1D nanomaterials may be elucidated as nanoelectronic devices that monitor the chemical or electrical environment of cells or tissue with exquisite spatial and temporal resolution and prospects for entirely new classes of engineered, hybrid tissues with rationally-designed biological function and two-way, closed-loop electronic communication are discussed.
Abstract: Solid-state nanomaterials exhibit complementary interactions with biological systems because of their biologically-relevant size scales and rationally tunable electrical, chemical and mechanical properties. In this review, we focus specifically on one-dimensional (1D) nanomaterials such as silicon or gold nanowires or carbon nanotubes. We discuss the nature of the nanomaterial–cell interface, and how that interface may be engineered to enhance or modulate cellular function. We then describe how those unique interfaces may be exploited in three-dimensional (3D) tissue culture to recapitulate the extracellular matrix and promote or complement morphogenesis. Finally, we describe how 1D nanomaterials may be elucidated as nanoelectronic devices that monitor the chemical or electrical environment of cells or tissue with exquisite spatial and temporal resolution. We discuss prospects for entirely new classes of engineered, hybrid tissues with rationally-designed biological function and two-way, closed-loop electronic communication.
15 citations
TL;DR: Information is gathered about fiber-based nanodevices from biopolymers in a drug transportation or tissue engineering and the condition of the procedure including solvent, copolymer addition, cross-linker addition, and optimization of spinning should be done.
Abstract: Background Biopolymers based materials (polysaccharides, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids) are one of the basic resources in bio-engineering sciences because of desirable features. Moreover, nanobiotechnology innovates nanomaterial and associated technique in nano medicine (drug delivery and tissue engineering). Methods In the nano-medicine, fibers are introduced as a successful biomimetic extracellular matrix scaffolds and drug carrier systems. Electrospinning as a simple and cost-effective technique is used to design nanofibers. Natural polymers including chitosan, alginic acid, hyaluronic acid, collagen, gelatin, and albumin are excellent candidates for electrospinning. However, these types of biopolymers typically have difficulty in electrospinning. Results Therefore, for spinning of these polymers, the condition of the procedure including solvent, copolymer addition, cross-linker addition, and optimization of spinning should be done. Conclusion The present study gathered information about fiber-based nanodevices from biopolymers in a drug transportation or tissue engineering.
01 Jan 2018
TL;DR: In this article, the size, shape, and composition of nanoparticles are controlled in order to determine different applications in nanobiotechnology, since each of these factors plays critical role in determining different applications.
Abstract: Synthesis of nanoparticles is a promising area of research in nanobiotechnology that aims to control the size, shape, and composition of nanoparticles, since each of these factors plays critical role in determining different applications.
01 Jan 2018
TL;DR: The basic principle underlying molecular self-assembly of proteins and peptides toward designing novel biomimetic nanomaterials and their potential applications in nanobiotechnology and dentistry are discussed.
Abstract: Self-assembly of biological molecules forms the basic principle in the formation of complex biological structures. Numerous proteins and peptides have been emerging as nanobiomaterials due to their ability to self-assemble into nanoscale structures like nanotubes, nanovesicles, helical ribbons, and three-dimensional fibrous scaffolds. This chapter discusses the basic principle underlying molecular self-assembly of proteins and peptides toward designing novel biomimetic nanomaterials and their potential applications in nanobiotechnology and dentistry.
01 Jul 2018
TL;DR: Biomedical Nanotechnology is an interdisciplinary approach towards health care, and has the potential to significantly improve the quality of life for humanity by significantly decreasing the treatment burden for patients, and by providing non-invasive therapeutics that confer enhanced therapeutic efficiency and safety.
Abstract: Abstract Biomedical Nanotechnology (BNT) has rapidly become a revolutionary force that is driving innovation in the medical field. BNT is a subclass of nanotechnology (NT), and often operates in cohort with other subclasses, such as mechanical or electrical NT for the development of diagnostic assays, therapeutic implants, nano-scale imaging systems, and medical machinery. BNT is generating solutions to many conventional challenges through the development of enhanced therapeutic delivery systems, diagnostic techniques, and theranostic therapies. Therapeutically, BNT has generated many novel nanocarriers (NCs) that each express specifically designed physiochemical properties that optimize their desired pharmacokinetic profile. NCs are also being integrated into nanoscale platforms that further enhance their delivery by controlling and prolonging their release profile. Nano-platforms are also proving to be highly efficient in tissue regeneration when combined with the appropriate growth factors. Regarding diagnostics, NCs are being designed to perform targeted delivery of luminescent tags and contrast agents that enhance the NC -aided imaging capabilities and resulting diagnostic accuracy of the presence of diseased cells. This technology has also been advancing the ability for surgeons to practice true precision surgical techniques. Incorporating therapeutic and diagnostic NC-components within a single NC can facilitate both functions, referred to as theranostics, which facilitates real-time in vivo tracking and observation of drug release events via enhanced imaging. Additionally, stimuli-responsive theranostic NCs are quickly developing as vectors for tumor ablation therapies by providing a model that facilitates the location of cancer cells for the application of an external stimulus. Overall, BNT is an interdisciplinary approach towards health care, and has the potential to significantly improve the quality of life for humanity by significantly decreasing the treatment burden for patients, and by providing non-invasive therapeutics that confer enhanced therapeutic efficiency and safety
TL;DR: Pristine- and strontium-doped Ag2O nanoparticles were synthesized utilizing the symbolic co-precipitation method, in which sodium hydroxide was used as a precipitating agent, hence causing the structural changes in DNA.
Abstract: Pristine- and strontium-doped Ag2O nanoparticles (NPs) were synthesized utilizing the symbolic co-precipitation method, in which sodium hydroxide was used as a precipitating agent. Various instrume...
TL;DR: This research presents a new generation of nanomaterials that combine high-performance liquid chromatography and diamond-magnifying spectroscopy for the first time and shows the versatility of these materials in biomedical applications.
Abstract: CAS Key Laboratory for Biomedical Effects of Nanomaterials and Nanosafety, CAS Center for Excellence in Nanoscience, National Center for Nanoscience and Technology of China, Beijing 100190, China; College of Chemistry & Environmental Science, Chemical Biology Key Laboratory of Hebei Province, Key Laboratory of Medicinal Chemistry and Molecular Diagnosis of Ministry of Education, Hebei University, Baoding 071000, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
TL;DR: Current progress on the magnetic nanoparticle-biomolecule hybrid systems, particularly employing the recognition pairs of DNA-DNA, DNA- protein, protein-protein, and protein-inorganics in several nanobiotechnology application areas, are reviewed.
Abstract: The marriage of biomolecular recognition and magnetic nanoparticle creates tremendous opportunities in the development of advanced technology both in academic research and in industrial sectors. In this paper, we review current progress on the magnetic nanoparticle-biomolecule hybrid systems, particularly employing the recognition pairs of DNA-DNA, DNA-protein, protein-protein, and protein-inorganics in several nanobiotechnology application areas, including molecular biology, diagnostics, medical treatment, industrial biocatalysts, and environmental separations.
TL;DR: This review briefly summarizes the applications of SV40 VNPs in this multidisciplinary field, including NP encapsulation, templated assembly of nanoarchitectures, nanophotonics, and fluorescence imaging.
Abstract: Biomolecular nanostructures derived from living organisms, such as protein cages, fibers, and layers are drawing increasing interests as natural biomaterials. The virus-based nanoparticles (VNPs) of simian virus 40 (SV40), with a cage-like structure assembled from the major capsid protein of SV40, have been developed as a platform for nanobiotechnology in the recent decade. Foreign nanomaterials (e.g., quantum dots (QDs) and gold nanoparticles (AuNPs)) can be positioned in the inner cavity or on the outer surface of SV40 VNPs, through self-assembly by engineering the nanoparticle (NP)-protein interfacial interactions. Construction of these hybrid nanostructures has enabled integration of different functionalities. This review briefly summarizes the applications of SV40 VNPs in this multidisciplinary field, including NP encapsulation, templated assembly of nanoarchitectures, nanophotonics, and fluorescence imaging.
26 Mar 2018
TL;DR: The present review focuses on the synthesis of nanoparticles with special emphasis on the silver and gold nanoparticles by using plants of genus Brassica and their applications in various fields.
Abstract: Nanobiotechnology is an emerging field of applied biological science and nanotechnology. For application of nanotechnology in medical, agriculture, and environmental fields, it is important to find more reliable and ecofriendly methods for synthesis of nanoparticles. Synthesis of nanoparticles (NPs) is done by various physical and chemical methods but the biological methods are relatively simple, cost-effective, non-toxic, and environmental friendly methods. Extract of Brassica genus vegetables and plants have been used as reducing agent for the environmental friendly synthesis of silver and gold nanoparticles, so the present review focuses on the synthesis of nanoparticles with special emphasis on the silver and gold nanoparticles by using plants of genus Brassica and their applications in various fields.
01 Jan 2018
TL;DR: This chapter deals with traditional methods of bioremediation, methods in nanobiotechnology, and future aspects.
Abstract: Nanobiotechnology is the combination of nanotechnology and biotechnology. Bioremediation is defined as a waste management technique that involves use of organisms to remove or neutralize pollutants from a contaminated site. This involves no use of chemicals and it allows waste to get recycled; this process has evolved as one of the most important methods. Remediation of contaminants using existing conventional technology is neither effective nor efficient in environmental cleanup. Techniques developed from nanobiotechnology can detect, control, and remediate pollutants by acting as sensors. Use of nanomaterials has less toxic effects and this will not only reduce consumption time but also reduce cost. Nanoparticles developed by using microbial systems provide green nanotechnology and help in keeping the environment clean. Green nanotechnology needs to develop to make cleaner environment with great ecological balance on earth. This chapter deals with traditional methods of bioremediation, methods in nanobiotechnology, and future aspects. Nanobiotechnology for Bioremediation: Recent Trends
TL;DR: Nanobiotechnology is emerging as a field of nanotechnology and applied biological science, and nanoparticles are produced by physical, chemical and biological methods; but biological methods are relati...
Abstract: Nanobiotechnology is emerging as a field of nanotechnology and applied biological science. Nanoparticles are produced by physical, chemical and biological methods; but biological methods are relati...
DOI•
01 Jan 2018
TL;DR: A robust bacterial immobilization method allowing bacterial species and medium independent analysis and fabricated nanotailored bacterial traps, allowing the immobilization of rod-shaped bacteria along their longitudinal axis as well as by the bacterial poles are proposed.
Abstract: The atomic force microscope (AFM) allows the analysis of living microorganisms in physiological conditions on the nanometer scale. The observation of bacteria in physiological aqueous medium necessitates a robust immobilization of the bacterium to the surface, in order to withstand the lateral forces exerted by the AFM cantilever tip during scanning. Different immobilization techniques for AFM analysis of bacteria in aqueous media have been developed hitherto, however the immobilization techniques were dependent on the bacterial species and/or the aqueous imaging medium. We propose a robust bacterial immobilization method allowing bacterial species and medium independent analysis. We demonstrate the immobilization and AFM analysis of different bacterial species such as gram-positive and -negative, motile and non-motile, and rod-shaped, ovococcal, and crescent bacteria. The developed bacterial traps were used together with Escherichia coli, Bacillus subtilis, Caulobacter crescentus, Streptococcus pneumoniae, and Acidiphilium cryptum bacteria in their corresponding physiological aqueous medium. The developed microfluidic device allows simultaneous fluorescence and atomic force microscopy of bacteria. Moreover, we developed two different cleanroom microfabrication techniques for the bacterial traps. We thus fabricated nanotailored bacterial traps, allowing the immobilization of rod-shaped bacteria along their longitudinal axis as well as by the bacterial poles. Furthermore, we discuss the nanomechanical analysis of suspended silicon nanowires and hydrogels using the AFM. In the final part of the thesis, we explain the microfabrication method for AFM cantilevers with a low quality factor and elucidate hard tip integration into the developed multilayer AFM cantilevers.
TL;DR: This inaugural year of Nano Research NR45 highlights 45 innovators in the field of nanobiotechnology, covering research focuses including imaging, drug delivery, and tissue engineering for diagnosis and treatment of different diseases.
Abstract: It is our great pleasure to announce awardees of the inaugural 2018 Nano Research Young Innovators (NR45) in nanobiotechnology. Congratulations to all of the 45 outstanding young investigators under 45! They were selected through a competitive process by an award committee from our editorial board. Nano Research is launching the NR45 Award program to young researchers in various fields of nanoscience and nanotechnology, in recognition to their distinguished accomplishments and/or potential to make substantial contributions to their fields. The aim of Nano Research NR45 is to recognize the outstanding contributions of young scientists and together with the Nano Research Symposium integrated in the annual US-SINO Nano Forum provide a platform for communication, discussions and collaborations between scientists internationally. For this inaugural year, we highlight 45 innovators in the field of nanobiotechnology, covering research focuses including imaging, drug delivery, and tissue engineering for diagnosis and treatment of different diseases. Their contributions to this special issue contain 28 review articles and 17 research articles. The special issue begins with reviews about advances in the field of nucleic acid delivery. Ding and coworkers summarize recent achievements in the development of multifunctional nucleic acid nanostructures, including RNA interference, clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeat associated proteins 9 system (CRISPR/Cas9) and CpG for gene delivery [1]. Shi and coworkers focus on messenger RNA (mRNA) delivery strategies for improvement of the stability of mRNA, minimize immune responses, and enhance translational efficacy [2]. They also highlight the recent progress in nanoparticle (NP)-based mRNA delivery. Sun and coworkers provide an overview of recent mRNA vaccine delivery systems, emphasizing the necessity of formulating mRNA vaccines with delivery systems [3]. Lee and coworkers highlight the role of mRNA vaccines as prophylactic vaccines for the infection prevention and as therapeutic vaccines for cancer immunotherapy [4]. Siegwart and coworkers outline the physical and biological challenges of delivering RNA therapeutics, and summarize the criteria to design clinically-relevant nanomaterials required to overcome those challenges [5]. Miyata and coworkers review the use of silica NPs for nucleic acid delivery [6]. Several reviews are focusing on the polymers or polymeric platforms for biomedical applications. For examples, Du and coworkers survey recent advances in the polymerization methodologies for improved therapeutic performance of the resultant nanomedicines [7]. Wang and coworkers focus on the temperature-responsive polymers and their biomedical applications [8]. Cao and coworkers review different strategies, including crosslinking and non-crosslinking Nano Research 2018, 11(10): 4931–4935 https://doi.org/10.1007/s12274-018-2208-4
TL;DR: This work has developed a new type of DNA-decorated nanoparticles that will enhance the diversity and complexity of nanoparticle-based bottom-up fabrication in materials science and bionanotechnology.
01 Jan 2018
Journal Article•
TL;DR: A systematic literature review was carried out on the concepts, constraints, problems, improvements and applications of nanotechnology in the field of medical science as mentioned in this paper, which indicated that there are many possibilities for nanobiotechnology to advance medical research, thus enhancing health care practices around the world.
Abstract: In biological fields, nanobiotechnology is the application of nanotechnology. Nanotechnology is a multidisciplinary area that currently recruits techniques, technologies and facilities available in engineering, physics, chemistry and biology in both traditional and advanced avenues. A systematic literature review was carried out on the concepts, constraints, problems, improvements and applications of nanotechnology in the field of medical science. There are many possibilities for nanobiotechnology to advance medical research, thus enhancing health care practises around the world.It is anticipated that several novel nanoparticles and nano devices will be used, with an immense positive effect on human health. Although nanotechnology's true clinical applications are still virtually non-existent, a large number of promising medical ventures are at an advanced experimental level. In medicine and physiology, the application of nanotechnology means that processes and devices are so technically developed that they can communicate with a high degree of precision with sub-cellular (i.e. molecular) levels of the body. Thus, with minimal side effects, therapeutic effectiveness can be achieved to the fullest by means of direct clinical intervention unique to the cell or tissue.