This review study contributes in identifying metacognitive strategies through students' reading comprehension. Different studies presented teachers to become reflective in terms of applying teaching methodology for developing reading skills, metacognitive strategies in reading, and comprehending the text properly. The contributions of this review study will identify metacognitive skills as an input to design materials based on reading comprehension. This review study is a fundamental research in the domain of cognition, metacognition, and reading comprehension. The researchers reviewed journal papers, and theses in the relevant field. The studies indicate that the contributions of metacognitive strategies of students' reading comprehension is significant. Findings also reveal that teachers play pivitol role to develop reading comprehension abilities among students at all levels. The results will be a guideline to design syllabus that include metacognitive strategies in learners' reading comprehension.

methods

The Development of Thought: Equilibration of Cognitive Structures

Identifying metacognitive strategies through learners' reading comprehension: a review of related studies

Five high-school chemistry teachers were asked to enact a lesson in which they posed a problem for which students were likely to generate solutions based on reasoning that was not aligned with accepted principles of chemistry. Four teachers selected a problem related to the stoichiometry of a reaction; the fifth chose a problem associated with periodic trends. The goal of the research was to understand the kinds of strategies used by these teachers to support students' progress towards more sophisticated conceptualizations of the phenomena being explored. Transcripts of teacher interviews and the discourse contained within the videotapes of the lessons were analyzed to identify similarities and differences in the strategies teachers employed. The data suggest that all of the teachers operated off a common lesson schema that caused them to implement certain pedagogical practices—especially certain discourse moves. This ‘traditional cognitive conflict’ schema from which the teachers' discursive practices seemed to be derived reduced the opportunities for them to gain full access into their students' thinking related to the principles underlying the problems posed. Moreover, it eliminated possible pathways the teachers could have laid down between the conceptions of students and those of chemists. For researchers this study suggests the need to further explore the prevalence of such practices and what prompts their utilization; for teachers this study shows the influence their choice of certain discourse moves can have on a lesson's conceptual trajectory.

Reducing the degrees of freedom in chemistry classroom conversations

The existing research focuses on team teaching between native and nonnative speakers in the English as subject classroom, yet the context presented in this study is unique and innovative, as its fucus is science with English as the medium of instruction This study is intended to be fact-finding in order to strengthen the effectiveness of the language assistant scheme for all those involved, especially for the collaborating teachers, to whom a study of this format will hopefully be helpful for their careers as bilingual teachers

Effective collaboration between native and nonnative speakers in the Spanish CLIL Context: The case of the Language Assistants in primary education

'Safety is not an intellectual exercise to keep us in work.
It is a matter of life and death. It is the sum of our contributions to safety management that determines whether the people we work with live or die.' Sir Brian Appleton, after Piper Alpha (1988).

Outdoor music festivals are increasingly common events on the summer entertainment landscape for youth in many countries around the world. Evidence indicates that attendance is associated with an increased risk of injury and death. Crowds are the principal hazard that needs to be dealt with, and without effective management, can become a significant problem with serious consequences. A considerable proportion of the safety risks associated with outdoor music festivals can be attributed to anti-social, irrational and unsafe behaviour by patrons. Encouragement of such behaviour has, to some extent, been a deliberate strategy on the part of music promoters and press agents, resulting in patrons attending music events becoming more aggressive and violent.

While there is endorsement in the literature for a risk management approach, risk assessments for music festivals and mass gatherings generally tend to deal with the traditional hazards and risks, without taking into account the dynamics of the crowd or those factors that influence its behaviour. Influences on crowd behaviour are little understood and generally ignored, leaving a significant source of risk at this type of event unaccounted for. When managing risks at outdoor music festivals it is important, therefore, to understand the nature of the crowd demographic attending the event and the factors that impact on and shape the behaviour of the crowd.

A number of attempts have been made to develop an appropriate method for assessing crowd safety at mass gatherings. While these approaches provide traditional (albeit contextualised) and contemporary approaches, none address the issue of behavioural risk. This dissertation outlines a model which draws together the various influences on individual behaviour which, mediated by theories of social psychology are translated into collective crowd behaviour and uses the model to ground the development of an instrument to monitor and assess behavioural risk at outdoor music festivals.

Behavioural risk at outdoor music festivals

and universals. Pre-verbal is self explanatory while concrete verbal is the world where thoughts and their articulation refer to things that can be pointed out, that is referring to concrete things. The concrete verbal world is generally the childhood stage. In the symbolic verbal representation thoughts and ideas do not have to directly refer to things that can be pointed out but rather recall a previously seen thing or understood concept. The conceptual abstract level differs from the symbolic level in complexity and depth. For example while the symbolic verbal level might deal with maintaining information systems and taking product orders from customers, at the abstract conceptual level in an organization socio-economic policies and large-scale international political problems are also tackled. The world of universals revolutionizes whole societies, creates new and lasting societal philosophies and ideologies and is the level of geniuses such as Karl Marx and Albert Einstein. Of these information complexity orders, Jaques and Cason focussed on the symbolic verbal and conceptual abstract. Combining these two orders of complexity with the four mental processes they developed a hierarchy of mental processing strata as shown below: 89 These orders are simlar to those articulated by other psychologists such as Piaget. This is not surprising given Jaques training as a psychoanalyst. 90 Jaques, 1994. Jaques and Cason noted that there was a “regular pattern of real earnings” and a consistent “growth of time-span in level of work” of their subjects. The findings were evident and verified in “countries ranging from industrially developed to less economically developed nations” and it was for these reasons that Jaques and Cason concluded that this regular pattern is a deeply inbuilt human characteristic. 17 Stratum of Role (i.e. Level of Work) Complexity of Mental Processes Required Stratum I Symbolic Declarative Stratum II Symbolic Cumulative Stratum III Symbolic Serial Stratum IV Symbolic Parallel Stratum V Conceptual Declarative Stratum VI Conceptual Cumulative Stratum VII Conceptual Serial Stratum VIII Conceptual Parallel Table 1: Jaques and Cason’s hierarchy of mental processing strata Stratum I roles involve routine work where there is constant supervision. The longest tasks in these roles have a time horizon of one day to three months. Stratum II roles have a time horizon of three months to a year and it is at this level where frontline managers and supervisors are found. The felt-fair pay at this level is one-and-a-half times that of stratum I. Stratum III roles, where the time horizon is between one and two years, is the level where departmental heads, owners of multistore franchises and highly skilled technicians managing few people can be found. Felt-fair pay here is six times that of stratum I. Stratum IV, the highest symbolic level, requires an ability to deal with diverse functions and constituencies. It is at this level that managers of large factories and laboratories are found. The time horizon at this level is between two and five years with a felt-fair pay of twelve times stratum I. Stratum V is the lowest level of abstraction. This level is a critical level in large multinational organizations as it is 91 Jaques, 1994. Level of work refers to what is commonly described as the size of the position, how big a role one position is compared with another, or how heavy the responsibility is in a job. 92 Jaques, 1994. It is important to note that Jaques and Cason differentiate between potential and applied capabilities. This table refers to both. Applied capability refers to the job an employee is currently performing, considering their mental processing capability, commitment to (or value of) their work and skilled knowledge developed. Potential capability is “the very highest level at which a person could work now, in work that was strongly valued and for which the person had had the opportunity to have gained the necessary skilled knowledge. (It is a function of that person’s maximum complexity of mental processing).” 93 Jaques, 1996. In his studies, Jaques was prone to asking employees across the organizations spectrum what they felt was a fair pay for various roles, hence the term “felt-fair pay”. He found that the employees assessments were similar and he then developed the felt-fair pay concept. This is a critical component of the managerial accountability hierarchies. 18 the link between the symbolic machinations of factories and abstract workings of head offices. Many divisional executives and business unit heads are found at this level. The time horizon is between five years and ten years with a felt-fair pay of twelve times Stratum I. Strata VI and higher are people who have a time horizon over ten years with felt-fair pay of 24 times stratum I (for stratum VI) to 48 (VII) and 96 (VIII). Chief executive officers of the largest multinational companies in the world typically have a stratum VIII mental processing capability. Stratum VIII and the universals strata (Strata IX to XII) are excluded from this study. Using Charan et al terminology and attributes in Jaques formulation one would typically have an organization structured as follows: 94 Charan et al, 2001

https://scholar.sun.ac.za/bitstream/handle/10019.1/1544/Thelejane,%20M.pdf?sequence=1

The Development of Thought: Equilibration of Cognitive Structures

Citations

Identifying metacognitive strategies through learners' reading comprehension: a review of related studies

Reducing the degrees of freedom in chemistry classroom conversations

Effective collaboration between native and nonnative speakers in the Spanish CLIL Context: The case of the Language Assistants in primary education

Behavioural risk at outdoor music festivals

Structure and sense : a study of organization based on the theories of Weick and Jaques

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