Showing papers on "Ecosystem management published in 2007"

The Nature and Value of Ecosystem Services: An Overview Highlighting Hydrologic Services

Abstract: Ecosystem services, the benefits that people obtain from ecosystems, are a powerful lens through which to understand human relationships with the environment and to design environmental policy. The explicit inclusion of beneficiaries makes values intrinsic to ecosystem services; whether or not those values are monetized, the ecosystem services framework provides a way to assess trade-offs among alternative scenarios of resource use and land- and seascape change. We provide an overview of the ecosystem functions responsible for producing terrestrial hydrologic services and use this context to lay out a blueprint for a more general ecosystem service assessment. Other ecosystem services are addressed in our discussion of scale and trade-offs. We review valuation and policy tools useful for ecosystem service protection and provide several examples of land management using these tools. Throughout, we highlight avenues for research to advance the ecosystem services framework as an operational basis for policy d...

Managing change toward adaptive water management through social learning

Abstract: The management of water resources is currently undergoing a paradigm shift toward a more integrated and participatory management style. This paper highlights the need to fully take into account the complexity of the systems to be managed and to give more attention to uncertainties. Achieving this requires adaptive management approaches that can more generally be defined as systematic strategies for improving management policies and practices by learning from the outcomes of previous management actions. This paper describes how the principles of adaptive water management might improve the conceptual and methodological base for sustainable and integrated water management in an uncertain and complex world. Critical debate is structured around four questions: (1) What types of uncertainty need to be taken into account in water management? (2) How does adaptive management account for uncertainty? (3) What are the characteristics of adaptive management regimes? (4) What is the role of social learning in managing change? Major transformation processes are needed because, in many cases, the structural requirements, e.g., adaptive institutions and a flexible technical infrastructure, for adaptive management are not available. In conclusion, we itemize a number of research needs and summarize practical recommendations based on the current state of knowledge.

A checklist for ecological management of landscapes for conservation

Abstract: The management of landscapes for biological conservation and ecologically sustainable natural resource use are crucial global issues. Research for over two decades has resulted in a large literature, yet there is little consensus on the applicability or even the existence of general principles or broad considerations that could guide landscape conservation. We assess six major themes in the ecology and conservation of landscapes. We identify 13 important issues that need to be considered in developing approaches to landscape conservation. They include recognizing the importance of landscape mosaics (including the integration of terrestrial and aquatic areas), recognizing interactions between vegetation cover and vegetation configuration, using an appropriate landscape conceptual model, maintaining the capacity to recover from disturbance and managing landscapes in an adaptive framework. These considerations are influenced by landscape context, species assemblages and management goals and do not translate directly into on-the-ground management guidelines but they should be recognized by researchers and resource managers when developing guidelines for specific cases. Two crucial overarching issues are: (i) a clearly articulated vision for landscape conservation and (ii) quantifiable objectives that offer unambiguous signposts for measuring progress.

Trophic cascades triggered by overfishing reveal possible mechanisms of ecosystem regime shifts

Abstract: Large-scale transitions between alternative states in ecosystems are known as regime shifts. Once described as healthy and dominated by various marine predators, the Black Sea ecosystem by the late 20th century had experienced anthropogenic impacts such as heavy fishing, cultural eutrophication, and invasions by alien species. We studied changes related to these “natural experiments” to reveal the mechanisms of regime shifts. Two major shifts were detected, the first related to a depletion of marine predators and the second to an outburst of the alien comb jelly Mnemiopsis leidyi; both shifts were triggered by intense fishing resulting in system-wide trophic cascades. The complex nature of ecosystem responses to human activities calls for more elaborate approaches than currently provided by traditional environmental and fisheries management. This implies challenging existing practices and implementing explanatory models of ecosystem interactions that can better reconcile conservation and ecosystem management ideals.

The implications of complexity for integrated resources management

Abstract: Integrated environmental resources management is a purposeful activity with the goal to maintain and improve the state of an environmental resource affected by human activities. In many cases different goals are in conflict and the notion ''integrated'' clearly indicates that resources management should be approached from a broad perspective taking all potential trade-offs and different scales in space and time into account. However, we are yet far from putting into practice integrated resources management fully taking into account the complexity of human-technology-environment systems. The tradition of resources management and of dealing with environmental problems is characterized by a command and control approach. The increasing awareness for the complexity of environmental problems and of human-technology-environment systems has triggered the development of new management approaches. The paper discusses the importance of focusing on the transition to new management paradigms based on the insight that the systems to be managed are complex adaptive systems. It provides arguments for the role of social learning processes and the need to develop methods combining approaches from hard and soft systems analysis. Soft systems analysis focuses on the importance of subjective perceptions and socially constructed reality. Soft systems methods and group model building techniques are quite common in management science where the prime target of management has always been the social system. Resources management is still quite slow to take up such innovations that should follow as a logical consequence of adopting an integrated management approach. Integrated water resources management is used as example to provide evidence for the need to implement participatory and adaptive management approaches that are able to cope with increasing uncertainties arising from fast changing socio-economic conditions and global and climate change. Promising developments and future research directions are discussed. The paper concludes with pointing out the need for changes in the scientific community to improve the conditions for interdisciplinary, system-oriented and trans-disciplinary research.

Enhancing the Fit through Adaptive Co-management: Creating and Maintaining Bridging Functions for Matching Scales in the Kristianstads Vattenrike Biosphere Reserve, Sweden

Abstract: Enhancing the fit through adaptive comanagement: creating and maintaining bridging functions for matching scales in the Kristianstads Vattenrike Biosphere Reserve Sweden

Confronting the challenges of implementing marine ecosystem-based management

Abstract: Many services provided by coastal and marine ecosystems are in decline. Awareness of these declines and the need to improve existing management has led to a shift toward ecosystem-based approaches to marine management and conservation, both in the US and elsewhere. Marine ecosystem-based management (EBM) involves recognizing and addressing interactions among different spatial and temporal scales, within and among ecological and social systems, and among stakeholder groups and communities interested in the health and stewardship of coastal and marine areas. We discuss some overarching principles of marine EBM and highlight key challenges facing implementation. We then recommend ways in which natural and social scientists can advance implementation of ecosystem-based approaches in the oceans by addressing key research needs, building interdisciplinary scientific capacity, and synthesizing and communicating scientific knowledge to policy makers, managers, and other stakeholders.

Scientific tools to support the practical implementation of ecosystem-based fisheries management

Abstract: Ecosystem-based fisheries management (EBFM) has emerged during the past 5 y as an alternative approach to single-species fishery management. To date, policy development has generally outstripped application and implementation. The EBFM approach has been broadly adopted at a policy level within Australia through a variety of instruments including fisheries legislation, environmental legislation, and a national policy on integrated oceans management. The speed of policy adoption has necessitated equally rapid development of scientific and management tools to support practical implementation. We discuss some of the scientific tools that have been developed to meet this need. These tools include extension of the management strategy evaluation (MSE) approach to evaluate broader ecosystem-based fishery management strategies (using the Atlantis modelling framework), development of new approaches to ecological risk assessment (ERA) for evaluating the ecological impacts of fishing, and development of a harvest strategy framework (HSF) and policy that forms the basis for a broader EBFM strategy. The practical application of these tools (MSE, ERA, and HSF) is illustrated for the southern and eastern fisheries of Australia.

Adaptive management and adaptive governance in the everglades ecosystem

Abstract: The Everglades is an intensively managed ecosystem where control of the water has allowed agricultural, urban and economic development, while struggling to meet biodiversity conservation goals. The over 100 year history of control began in response to a disastrous series of floods and droughts followed by environmental crises at an ecosystem scale. Each of these events precipitated technological fixes that extended control of water resources. Institutional structures have been continually reorganized over the last century to meet shifting social objectives, the latest of which is ecosystem restoration. However, the basic response, which employs engineering and technological solutions, is a type of social trap, where governmental mandates, planning-based paradigms and vested interests all interact to inhibit the resolution of chronic environmental issues. Experience from other resource systems indicates that in such an inherently complex system wrought with multiple uncertainties, restoration must be discovered through experimentation and learning embraced by adaptive management. Though minimal steps towards adaptive management have been made, we argue that adaptive forms of experimentation and governance are needed to resolve chronic resource issues and achieve restoration goals.

Measuring social-ecological dynamics behind the generation of ecosystem services.

Abstract: The generation of ecosystem services depends on both social and ecological features. Here we focus on management, its ecological consequences, and social drivers. Our approach combined (1) quantitative surveys of local species diversity and abundance of three functional groups of ecosystem service providers (pollinators, seed dispersers, and insectivores) with (2) qualitative studies of local management practices connected to these services and their underlying social mechanisms, i.e., institutions, local ecological knowledge, and a sense of place. It focused on the ecology of three types of green areas (allotment gardens, cemeteries, and city parks) in the city of Stockholm, Sweden. These are superficially similar but differ considerably in their management. Effects of the different practices could be seen in the three functional groups, primarily as a higher abundance of pollinators in the informally managed allotment gardens and as differences in the composition of seed dispersers and insectivores. Thus, informal management, which is normally disregarded by planning authorities, is important for ecosystem services in the urban landscape. Furthermore, we suggest that informal management has an important secondary function: It may be crucial during periods of instability and change as it is argued to promote qualities with potential for adaptation. Allotment gardeners seem to be the most motivated managers, something that is reflected in their deeper knowledge and can be explained by a sense of place and management institutions. We propose that co-management would be one possible way to infuse the same positive qualities into all management and that improved information exchange between managers would be one further step toward ecologically functional urban landscapes.

Guest Editorial, part of a Special Feature on Strengthening adaptive capacity Powerless Spectators, Coping Actors, and Adaptive Co-managers: a Synthesis of the Role of Communities in Ecosystem Management

Abstract: We provide a synthesis of the papers in the Special Issue, the Communities Ecosystems and Livelihoods component of the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA), and other recent publications on the adaptive capacity of communities and their role in ecosystem management. Communities adapt because they face enormous challenges due to policies, conflicts, demographic factors, ecological change, and changes in their livelihood options, but the appropriateness of their responses varies. Based on our synthesis, three broad categories of adaptive communities are identified. "Powerless spectator" communities have a low adaptive capacity and weak capacity to govern, do not have financial or technological options, and lack natural resources, skills, institutions, and networks. "Coping actor" communities have the capacity to adapt, but are not managing social-ecological systems. They lack the capacity for governance because of lack of leadership, of vision, and of motivation, and their responses are typically short term. "Adaptive manager" communities have both adaptive capacity and governance capacity to sustain and internalize this adaptation. They invest in the long-term management of ecosystem services. Such communities are not only aware of the threats, but also take appropriate action for long-term sustainability. Adaptive co- management becomes possible through leadership and vision, the formation of knowledge networks, the existence or development of polycentric institutions, the establishment and maintenance of links between culture and management, the existence of enabling policies, and high levels of motivation in all role players. Adaptive co-managers are empowered, but empowerment is a consequence of the capacity for governance and the capacity to adapt, rather than a starting point. Communities that are able to enhance their adaptive capacity can deal with challenges such as conflicts, make difficult trade-offs between their short- and long- term well-being, and implement rules for ecosystem management. This improves the capacity of the ecosystem to continue providing services.

Powerless spectators, coping actors, and adaptive co-managers: a synthesis of the role of communities in ecosystem management

Abstract: We provide a synthesis of the papers in the Special Issue, the Communities Ecosystems and Livelihoods component of the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA), and other recent publications on the ada ...

Marine Protected Areas: A Governance System Analysis

Abstract: Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) are promoted as an important marine ecosystem management tool. However, they are complex systems that, from a governance perspective, raise serious challenges with regard to their effectiveness. In this paper, drawing on recent contributions to the so-called “interactive governance theory,” we argue that marine and coastal governance is basically a relationship between two systems, a “governing system” and a “system-to-be-governed.” The former system is social: it is made up of institutions and steering mechanisms. The latter system is partly natural, partly social: it consists of an ecosystem, and the resources that this harbours, as well as a system of users and stakeholders who, among themselves, form political coalitions and institutions. We need to be concerned with the relationship and the interaction between the governing system and the system-to-be governed, which forms a system in its own right. Governance theory argues that both systems and their interactions share similar attributes—they are diverse, complex, dynamic and vulnerable. This raises serious concerns as to their governability. There may be limits to what the governing system can do, limits attributed to one or all three systems. But such limits are themselves issues and concerns for planning and institutional design. In this paper we present, in the form of a governance matrix, the relevant issues and concerns with regard to the governability of MPAs.

The future of production systems in a globalized world

Abstract: Human life is ultimately dependent on ecosystem services supplied by the biosphere. These include food, disease regulation, and recreational opportunities. Over the past 50 years, humans have changed ecosystems more rapidly and extensively than at any other time in human history, primarily to meet our growing demands for provisioning ecosystem services (eg food, freshwater, and timber). These changes have impacted other ecosystem services (eg climate regulation and erosion control). Current demand for ecosystem services is growing rapidly. How these demands are met will play a major role in determining the ecological, economic, and cultural future of the planet. While much is known about improving management of production systems to be more sustainable, research gaps remain. Challenges for ecologists include understanding the connection between management regimes, ecosystem structures and provision of multiple types of ecosystem services, understanding interactions among ecosystem services, and exploring ...

Social–ecological systems and adaptive governance of the commons

Abstract: The issues of complex adaptive systems and cooperative behaviour that are raised in the paper by Levin (2006), with a comment by Vincent (2006) adding the importance of backing up social norms with economic incentives, are of great significance to the prosperous development of society. Such insights can contribute to managing the global commons in a more sustainable manner and, in particular, the ecological life-support systems on which societal development ultimately depends. Progress in the interface between ecology, economics and other social sciences has been substantial during the past decades, and the new insights are shaping science and policy. The recent Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (http://www.millenniumassessment.org) is one example, stressing the significance of sustaining the capacity of the environment to generate ecosystem services and the conditions, trends and futures of this capacity. The recognition is spreading that many ‘disciplinary maps’ only partially capture the understanding we need to interpret the dynamic world that we live in (e.g. Ludwig et al. 2001). New and better maps are required in the attempt at integrative science for real world sustainability, and three general features are increasingly emphasized in this context; First, social and ecological systems are deeply interconnected and co-evolving across spatial and temporal scales. It has proven difficult to truly understand ecosystem dynamics and the ability to generate services without accounting for the human dimension that shapes and is shaped by nature. Doing the natural science first, with the social dimension added on later in the processes, misses essential feedbacks of complex adaptive social–ecological systems. The same is true for social sustainability. Despite a vast literature on the social dimension of resource and environmental management, studies have often focused on the social domain only, treating the ecosystem largely as a black box, assuming that, if the social system performs adaptively or is well organized institutionally, it will also manage ecosystems in a sustainable fashion. A human society may show great ability to cope with change and adapt if analysed only through the social dimension lens. But, such an adaptation may be at the expense of changes in the capacity of ecosystems to sustain the adaptation and may generate traps and breakpoints in social–ecological systems (Berkes et al. 2003; Walker and Meyers 2004). Secondly, contemporary resource and environmental management and associated policies, including economic instruments and incentives, have, to a large extent, been based on steady-state views and assumptions. The complex adaptive systems approach, to which Levin (1998, 1999) has substantially contributed, contests models and policies that are based on assumptions of linear dynamics, with a focus on optimal solution in the vicinity of a single equilibrium (Dasgupta and Mäler 2003). Interdisciplinary research has illustrated that applications of such theories and world views tend to develop governance systems with policies that invest in controlling a few selected ecosystem processes, causing loss of key ecological support functions, in the urge to produce particular resources to fulfill economic or social goals (Holling and Meffe 1996). These practices tend to reduce the capacity to deal with change and options to continue to develop and may result in vulnerable social– ecological systems subject to regime shifts (Holling 1973; Scheffer et al. 2001; Folke 2006). The third aspect is about cross-scale and cross-systems interactions. As emphasized by Levin and Vincent, scale issues are central in dealing with complex adaptive systems. Social–ecological systems have links across temporal and spatial scales, and levels of organization and decisions in one place affect people elsewhere (GunderEcology and Economics

A framework to predict the effects of livestock grazing and grazing exclusion on conservation values in natural ecosystems in Australia.

Abstract: Grazing by domestic livestock has greatly degraded many Australian ecosystems and its legacy will be long-lasting in many areas. Although livestock are usually removed from conservation reserves because they are perceived to be incompatible with the conservation of natural ecosystems, they have been retained in several reserves in south-eastern Australia as a management tool to achieve conservation outcomes. These cases highlight the fact that no framework currently exists to address the question, under what circumstances (and in what ecosystems) is livestock grazing—or the removal of grazing—likely to have positive, negative, neutral or uncertain impacts on the diversity and composition of native plants? This paper provides a conceptual framework to predict the effects of livestock grazing and grazing exclusion on the conservation values of native vegetation across natural ecosystems in Australia. It should prove equally relevant to other ecosystems around the world which have evolved without heavy grazing by large herbivores. The framework is based on disturbance- and grazing-ecology literature from Australia and elsewhere, and incorporates the following six main factors: (1) impacts of livestock grazing on soil and ecosystem processes, (2) historical exposure to grazing, (3) site productivity, (4) relative palatability of dominant species, (5) species-specific factors influencing plant recruitment and (6) spatial scale and landscape context. These factors are integrated into a decision tree to describe the potential impacts of livestock on native vegetation in a particular area. Livestock grazing is likely to have detrimental impacts on conservation values in many ecological contexts, especially in relatively intact, uninvaded ecosystems on unproductive soils. By contrast, it may be a useful management tool to achieve conservation objectives where it either (1) controls the biomass of existing potentially dominant, grazing-sensitive plants (native or exotic), (2) prevents encroachment by undesirable, grazing-sensitive, potential dominants, (3) provides disturbance niches required by rare or significant plant species, (4) maintains fauna habitat structure or (5) enhances the diversity of species and vegetation structures across the landscape, especially when most of the landscape is ungrazed. In many cases, other disturbance regimes (especially burning) may achieve similar outcomes; however, other disturbances will not necessarily be more effective than grazing per se, especially in degraded or invaded areas. The framework provides a coarse-level filter to inform management decisions and to allow the findings from individual studies to be placed in a larger ecological context. Although the framework is intended to improve decisions about conservation management, it is clear that much more research is needed to assess the role of grazing exclusion in previously grazed ecosystems, and that modifications to current grazing regimes require testing, perhaps by using adaptive management principles, to ensure optimal outcomes for biodiversity conservation.

The interplay of pollinator diversity, pollination services and landscape change

Abstract: Summary 1. Pollinators are a functional group with high relevance for ensuring cross-pollination in wild plant populations and yields in major crops. Both pollinator declines and losses of pollination services have been identified in the context of habitat destruction and land use intensification. 2. This editorial synthesizes and links the findings presented in seven papers in this Special Profile, focusing on pollinator diversity and plant‐pollinator interactions in natural habitats and agricultural landscapes. 3. The results contribute to our understanding of local and landscape scale effects of land use intensification on pollinator densities and diversity, and pollination functions in wild plant communities and crops. 4. Synthesis and applications . We emphasize the exceptional coverage in pollination ecology ranging from basic ecological relationships to applied aspects of ecosystem services and ecosystem management, and conclude with identifying gaps in current knowledge and challenging research areas for the future.

A step towards seascape scale conservation: using vessel monitoring systems (VMS) to map fishing activity.

Abstract: Background Conservation of marine ecosystems will require a holistic understanding of fisheries with concurrent spatial patterns of biodiversity. Methodology/Principal Findings Using data from the UK Government Vessel Monitoring System (VMS) deployed on UK-registered large fishing vessels we investigate patterns of fisheries activity on annual and seasonal scales. Analysis of VMS data shows that regions of the UK European continental shelf (i.e. Western Channel and Celtic Sea, Northern North Sea and the Goban Spur) receive consistently greater fisheries pressure than the rest of the UK continental shelf fishing zone. Conclusions/Significance VMS provides a unique and independent method from which to derive patterns of spatially and temporally explicit fisheries activity. Such information may feed into ecosystem management plans seeking to achieve sustainable fisheries while minimising putative risk to non-target species (e.g. cetaceans, seabirds and elasmobranchs) and habitats of conservation concern. With multilateral collaboration VMS technologies may offer an important solution to quantifying and managing ecosystem disturbance, particularly on the high-seas.

Predicting the economic impact of an invasive species on an ecosystem service.

Abstract: Quantifying the impact of alien invasive species on ecosystem services is an essential step in developing effective practices and policy for invasive species management. Here we develop a stochastic bioeconomic model that enables the economic impact of an invasive pest to be estimated before its arrival, based on relatively poorly specified ecological and economic parameters. We developed the model by using a hypothetical invasion of the varroa bee mite (Varroa destructor) into Australia and the negative flow-on effects that it would have on pollination by reducing honey bee populations, giving rise to a loss of pollination services, reduced crop yields, and additional production costs. If the mite were to continue to be prevented from entering the country over the next 30 years, we estimate that the economic costs avoided would be US$16.4-38.8 million (Aus$21.3-50.5 million) per year. We suggest that current invasion response funding arrangements in Australia, which do not acknowledge these avoided damages, require amendment.

The Law and Policy of Ecosystem Services

Abstract: "The Law and Policy of Ecosystem Services" is the first comprehensive exploration of the status and future of natural capital and ecosystem services in American law and policy The book develops a framework for thinking about ecosystem services across their ecologic, geographic, economic, social, and legal dimensions and evaluates the prospects of crafting a legal infrastructure that can help build an ecosystem service economy that is as robust as existing economies for manufactured goods, natural resource commodities, and human-provided services The book examines the geographic, ecological, and economic context of ecosystem services and provides a baseline of the current status of ecosystem services in law and society It identifies shortcomings of current law and policy and the critical areas for improvement and forges an approach for the design of new law and policy for ecosystem servicesIncluded are a series of nine empirical case studies that explore the problems caused by society s failure to properly value natural capital Among the case study topics considered are water issues, The Conservation Reserve Program, the National Conservation Buffer Initiative, the agricultural policy of the European Union, wetland mitigation, and pollution trading"The Law and Policy of Ecosystem Services" is a groundbreaking look at the question of whether and how law and policy can shape a sustainable system of ecosystem service management It is an accessible and informative work for faculty, students, and policy makers concerned with ecology, economics, geography, political science, environmental studies, law, and related fields"

Plant‐trait‐based modeling assessment of ecosystem‐service sensitivity to land‐use change

Abstract: Evidence is accumulating that the continued provision of essential ecosystem services is vulnerable to land-use change. Yet, we lack a strong scientific basis for this vulnerability as the processes that drive ecosystem-service delivery often remain unclear. In this paper, we use plant traits to assess ecosystem-service sensitivity to land-use change in subalpine grasslands. We use a trait-based plant classification (plant functional types, PFTs) in a landscape modeling platform to model community dynamics under contrasting but internally consistent land-use change scenarios. We then use predictive models of relevant ecosystem attributes, based on quantitative plant traits, to make projections of ecosystem-service delivery. We show that plant traits and PFTs are effective predictors of relevant ecosystem attributes for a range of ecosystem services including provisioning (fodder), cultural (land stewardship), regulating (landslide and avalanche risk), and supporting services (plant diversity). By analyzing the relative effects of the physical environment and land use on relevant ecosystem attributes, we also show that these ecosystem services are most sensitive to changes in grassland management, supporting current agri-environmental policies aimed at maintaining mowing of subalpine grasslands in Europe.

Enhancing ecosystem management through social-ecological inventories : lessons from Kristianstads Vattenrike, Sweden

Abstract: In an increasingly complex, rapidly changing world, the capacity to cope with, adapt to, and shape change is vital. This thesis investigates how natural resource management can be organized and practiced to nurture this capacity, referred to as resilience, in social-ecological systems. Based on case studies and large-N data sets from UNESCO Biosphere Reserves (BRs) and the UN Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA), it analyzes actors and social processes involved in adaptive co-management on the ground. Papers I & II use Kristianstads Vattenrike BR to analyze the roles of local stewards and bridging organizations. Here, local stewards, e.g. farmers and bird watchers, provide on-site management, detailed, long-term monitoring, and local ecological knowledge, build public support for ecosystem management, and hold unique links to specialized networks. A bridging organization strengthens their initiatives. Building and drawing on multi-level networks, it gathers different types of ecological knowledge, builds moral, political, legal and financial support from institutions and organizations, and identifies windows of opportunity for projects. Paper III synthesizes the MA community-based assessments and points to the importance of bridging organizations, leadership and vision, knowledge networks, institutions nested across scales, enabling policies, and high motivation among actors for adaptive co-management. Paper IV explores learning processes catalyzed by bridging organizations in BRs. 79 of the 148 BRs analyzed bridge local and scientific knowledge in efforts to conserve biodiversity and foster sustainable development, provide learning platforms, support knowledge generation (research, monitoring and experimentation), and frame information and education to target groups. Paper V tests the effects of participation and adaptive co-management in BRs. Local participation is positively linked to local support, successful integration of conservation and development, and effectiveness in achieving developmental goals. Participation of scientists is linked to effectiveness in achieving ‘conventional’ conservation goals and policy-makers enhance the integration of conservation and development. Adaptive co-management, found in 46 BRs, is positively linked to self-evaluated effectiveness in achieving developmental goals, but not at the expense of conservation. The thesis concludes that adaptive collaboration and learning processes can nurture resilience in social-ecological systems. Such processes often need to be catalyzed, supported and protected to survive. Therefore, bridging organizations are crucial in adaptive co-management.