Showing papers in "Journal of Computer Information Systems in 2013"
TL;DR: Little or no rigor for justifying sample size was shown for virtually all of the IS studies in this dataset, implying the subjective nature of sample size in qualitative IS studies.
Abstract: This study examines 83 IS qualitative studies in leading IS journals for the following purposes: (a) identifying the extent to which IS qualitative studies employ best practices of justifying sample size; (b) identifying optimal ranges of interviews for various types of qualitative research; and (c) identifying the extent to which cultural factors (such as journal of publication, number of authors, world region) impact sample size of interviews. Little or no rigor for justifying sample size was shown for virtually all of the IS studies in this dataset. Furthermore, the number of interviews conducted for qualitative studies is correlated with cultural factors, implying the subjective nature of sample size in qualitative IS studies. Recommendations are provided for minimally acceptable practices of justifying sample size of interviews in qualitative IS studies.
1,497 citations
TL;DR: Chinese consumers' m-commerce continuance usage intentions are examined by extending the Expectations-Confirmation Model by adding variables such as perceived ease of use, perceived enjoyment, trust and perceived cost to the traditional ECM.
Abstract: Advancements in wireless communications have increased the number of people using mobile devices and have accelerated the growth of mobile commerce (m-commerce). This research aims to examine Chinese consumers' m-commerce continuance usage intentions by extending the Expectations-Confirmation Model (ECM). Additional variables such as perceived ease of use, perceived enjoyment, trust and perceived cost were added to the traditional ECM. Data was collected from 410 consumers who had prior experience using m-commerce. Structural equation modelling was applied to examine the proposed research model. The results showed that satisfaction, perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, perceived enjoyment, perceived cost and trust have significant influence on consumers' m-commerce continuance intentions. This research confirms the need to extend the traditional ECM when studying technology such as m-commerce. The results of this study will be useful for telecommunications and m-commerce companies in formulating s...
187 citations
TL;DR: The study integrated the Theory of Planned Behavior, the Technology Acceptance Model, and the Uses and Gratification Theory to predict young American consumers' mobile apps attitudes, intent and use.
Abstract: The study integrated the Theory of Planned Behavior, the Technology Acceptance Model, and the Uses and Gratification Theory to predict young American consumers' mobile apps attitudes, intent and use. The model was tested by a web survey of 555 American college students in winter, 2011. SEM results show that young American consumers' attitudes and intent predict their use of mobile applications. Perceived enjoyment, usefulness, ease of use and subjective norm emerge as significant predictors of their mobile apps attitudes. Perceived behavioral control, usefulness, and mobile Internet use predict their intent to use mobile applications. Their use of mobile applications is determined by perceived usefulness, intent to use, mobile Internet use, income and gender. Implications for academia and industry are discussed.
149 citations
TL;DR: The most critical top 10 risks perceived by IT experts were found to be caused by current legal and technical complexity and deficiencies associated with cloud computing, as well as by a lack of preparation and planning of user companies.
Abstract: Cloud computing has become an increasingly prevalent topic in recent years. However, migrating hitherto internal IT data and applications to the cloud is associated with a wide range of risks and challenges. The study reported in this paper aims to explore potential risks that organisations may encounter during cloud computing adoption, as well as to assess and prioritise these risks, from the perspective of IT practitioners and consultants. A questionnaire was designed and distributed to a group of 295 highly experienced IT professionals involved in developing and implementing cloud based solutions, of which 39 (13.2%) responses were collected and analysed. The findings identified a set of 39 cloud computing risks, which concentrated around diverse operational, organisational, technical, and legal areas. The most critical top 10 risks perceived by IT experts were found to be caused by current legal and technical complexity and deficiencies associated with cloud computing, as well as by a lack of preparat...
134 citations
TL;DR: A taxonomy of application strategies for neuroscience in IS design science research is presented and it is concluded that, if neuroscience is considered a valuable complement to the more traditional approaches, it has the potential to become a major reference discipline for IS designScience research.
Abstract: Design science has evolved as a major research paradigm in the information systems (IS) discipline, which aims to design innovative and useful IT artifacts, such as conceptual models and software systems. Despite the increasing attention paid to the cognitive and emotional mechanisms that underlie the perception of such artifacts, research that explores the neurobiological determinants of these mechanisms has only recently begun to emerge. The primary argument for the use of neurobiological approaches in IS design science research is that IT artifact design — and, ultimately, human-computer interaction in general — may significantly benefit from neuroscience theories, concepts, methods, and data. In particular, the consideration of neuroscience may improve IT artifacts' alignment with users' perceptual and information processing mechanisms, particularly the brain. Against this background, this article presents a taxonomy of application strategies for neuroscience in IS design science research. It describe...
98 citations
TL;DR: It has been found that the consumers' demographic differences have varying degrees of impact on their concerns for information privacy in the context of m-commerce.
Abstract: M-commerce (mobile commerce) has been gaining popularity as the smartphones proliferated and the high speed mobile data networks become increasingly ubiquitous in the recent years. This study attempts to identify the unique marketing context and features of m-commerce as compared to e-commerce, and to explore how consumers' demographic differences may affect their concerns for information privacy (CFIP) in the context of m-commerce. The APCO model (Antecedents → Privacy Concerns → Outcomes) is used as a framework to help derive our research model. Two perspectives about m-commerce are explored. The m-commerce consumers' demographic differences and their concerns over privacy are analyzed, based on a survey of 278 mobile phone users in U.S. It has been found that the consumers' demographic differences have varying degrees of impact on their concerns for information privacy in the context of m-commerce. These varying degrees of privacy concerns need to be addressed to ensure the healthy growth in m-commerce.
87 citations
TL;DR: The research model of this study includes emotional, cognitive, and social intelligence competencies of project managers as they lead to the project performance, while team social capital is posited as a mediator between these leadership competencies and team project performance.
Abstract: As the nature of work changes into team-based knowledge work, the social capital among team members becomes more and more critical. This study applies social capital theory to IT service team environment. The research model of this study includes emotional, cognitive, and social intelligence competencies of project managers (PM) as they lead to the project performance, while team social capital is posited as a mediator between these leadership competencies and team project performance. A PLS analysis of 285 data points collected via a validated questionnaire revealed the followings: (1) emotional intelligence competencies of PM directly influence the project performance, (2) social intelligence competencies of PM indirectly influence project performance only via team social capital, and (3) cognitive intelligence competencies of PM maintains direct influence on project performance in shorter term projects, but indirect influence only via the accumulated team social capital in longer term projects. The analysis also reveals that it takes time to grow team social capital. Implications of the findings are discussed, and further studies are suggested.
74 citations
TL;DR: It is posits that EA is about the architecture of the entire enterprise including its ITs, and asserts that this raises significant challenges for information system (IS) professionals, educators, and researchers who, like those in most other disciplines and professions, tend toward reductionist specializations.
Abstract: Enterprise Architecture (EA) is a set of concepts and practices based on holistic systems thinking, principles of shared language, and the long-standing disciplines of engineering and architecture. EA represents a change in how we think about and manage information technologies (ITs) and the organizations they serve. Many existing organizational activities are EA-type activities, but done in isolation, by different groups, using different tools, models, and vernaculars. EA is about bridging the chasms among these activities, from strategy to operations, and better aligning, integrating, optimizing, and synergizing the whole organization. This article: (1) posits that EA is about the architecture of the entire enterprise including its ITs; (2) describes an ontology for the information needed to holistically define and represent that architecture; and (3) asserts that this raises significant challenges for information system (IS) professionals, educators, and researchers who, like those in most other discip...
59 citations
TL;DR: The essence of austainable information society in the context of an information society concept is presented and assumptions for the model of a sustainable information society are formulated.
Abstract: The purpose of this research was to propound the conceptual model of a sustainable information society. First, the essence of a sustainable information society in the context of an information society concept is presented. Secondly, different kinds of phenomena and trends of sustainable information society development are identified and diagnosed. Thirdly, assumptions for the model of a sustainable information society are formulated. Finally, special attention is given to the presentation of the sustainable information society model. Discussion of research findings and future works for both researchers and practitioners complete the paper.
54 citations
TL;DR: Factor analysis was used to empirically validate an active learning model that asserts knowledge construction in e-learning is achieved through active learning in three stages (underpinning, ownership, and engaging), implying that the components in the model were empirical validated to be reliable and interpretable among their associated factors.
Abstract: Factor analysis was used to empirically validate an active learning model that asserts knowledge construction in e-learning is achieved through active learning in three stages (underpinning, ownership, and engaging). Each stage is referred to as a component that is comprised of a number of elements or factors essential to the design of active learning in e-learning, leading to successful construction of knowledge. The findings of this study implied that the components in the model were empirically validated to be reliable and interpretable among their associated factors. Conclusions are drawn from the findings. Recommendations are made for further study.
37 citations
TL;DR: Although the effect of information consistency on decision quality appears to be non-significant, consistency of information may intensify the contribution of accuracy, indicating that information accuracy and consistency influence decision quality jointly.
Abstract: A number of studies suggest that making correct decisions depends on high-quality information; how information quality affects decision-making is still not fully understood. Following the multi-dimensional view of information quality, this paper investigates the effects of information accuracy, completeness, and consistency on decision-making. Results show that information accuracy and completeness affect decision quality significantly. Although the effect of information consistency on decision quality appears to be non-significant, consistency of information may intensify the contribution of accuracy, indicating that information accuracy and consistency influence decision quality jointly.
TL;DR: This study investigated five types of security attacks for differences in perceived severity according to gender, academic level, and age to reveal that the majority of users reported their sense of severity as unethical across all five cyber-security attacks, while only a small minority of Users reported these cyber- security attacks to be ethical.
Abstract: Security and ethical issues with information systems (IS) are important concerns for most organizations. However, limited attention has been given to unethical behaviors and severity of cyber-security attacks, while these instances appear to be critically important. Although managers have been embracing e-learning systems for training and virtual-team collaborations, little is known about motivations for cyber-security attacks on such systems.Our research includes quantitative and qualitative study of 519 end-users who rated the ethical severity of five common cyber-security attacks. This study investigated five types of security attacks for differences in perceived severity according to gender, academic level, and age. Our findings reveal that the majority of users (90%) reported their sense of severity as unethical across all five cyber-security attacks, while only a small minority of users (3.24%) reported these cyber-security attacks to be ethical. This study also presents a further grounded analysis ...
TL;DR: It is argued that trust may have an even broader role in post-adoption contexts than previously assumed and social investment represents a procedural-relational switching cost (a constraint mechanism) which further increases continuance intent.
Abstract: Many studies have shown that trust is an important cognition that drives the continued use of information systems. The theoretical reasoning behind this effect has been that trust helps people rule out undesirable, yet possible, opportunistic behaviors, and ultimately makes users more at ease regarding transacting with a website. In this study, we build on the relationship marketing literature and argue that trust may have an even broader role in post-adoption contexts than previously assumed. Not only can trust influence system use intentions directly (a dedication mechanism), but also indirectly through the promotion of social investment in a relationship with a system and its users. This social investment represents a procedural-relational switching cost (a constraint mechanism) which further increases continuance intent. Data collected from 382 social networking website users support the hypotheses and validate the proposed dual-role of trust. Implications for research and practice are discussed.
TL;DR: The findings indicate that dyadic tie strength is influenced by an individual's disposition to trust and by the trust belief between the respondent and the respondent's last connection made in LinkedIn.
Abstract: As the popularity of online social networks grow, it becomes important to understand how context and individual participants influence trust formation within the network. We investigate the impact that trust — both at the individual level and network level — has on the strength of association between members of the professional social networking site LinkedIn. A model of trust adapted from previous literature is empirically tested using an online survey sent to a random sample of LinkedIn members. The findings indicate that dyadic tie strength is influenced by an individual's disposition to trust and by the trust belief between the respondent and the respondent's last connection made in LinkedIn. Trust in LinkedIn did not influence the relationship.
TL;DR: This study identifies the key antecedent factors for accomplishing the adoption stage of enterprise resource planning (ERP) systems and found that system quality is also an important driver for organizational adoption of ERP.
Abstract: This study identifies the key antecedent factors for accomplishing the adoption stage of enterprise resource planning (ERP) systems. Five potential antecedent factors of adoption were derived from the literature, including that on innovation theories, and data were obtained from a sample of 217 organizations across Australia. A structural equation modeling (SEM) technique was used to examine the complex relationships between antecedents and the adoption decision. We found that there were three positive drivers of a successful outcome of the ERP adoption stage. Prior findings have shown that system quality is a key enabler for innovation adoption by individuals, and we found that system quality is also an important driver for organizational adoption of ERP. It was also indicated that organizations consider adopting ERP when the market and customer patterns are relatively stable rather than in turbulent environments.
Journal Article•
TL;DR: Changes in cognitive complexity with the change in the number of reported bugs, time taken to fix the bugs, and contributions from new developers are examined and are all found to be statistically significant.
Abstract: Maintenance is inevitable for almost any software. Software
maintenance is required to fix bugs, to add new features, to
improve performance, and/or to adapt to a changed environment.
In this article, we examine change in cognitive complexity and its
impacts on maintenance in the context of open source software
(OSS). Relationships of the change in cognitive complexity with
the change in the number of reported bugs, time taken to fix the
bugs, and contributions from new developers are examined and
are all found to be statistically significant. In addition, several
control variables, such as software size, age, development status,
and programmer skills are included in the analyses. The results
have strong implications for OSS project administrators; they
must continually measure software complexity and be actively
involved in managing it in order to have successful and sustainable
OSS products.
TL;DR: The MOBII framework was successfully evaluated, its practical applicability was demonstrated by adapting an actively used BI implementation method, and twenty key considerations, which are also included in the framework.
Abstract: The new generation of mobile devices, such as smartphones and tablets, is enabling employees to access business insights anytime, anywhere. This trend in Business Intelligence (BI) is popularized under the term mobile BI. Various studies indicate a strong increase in the adoption of this technology. However, mobile BI implementations remain unexplored and unsupported by implementation methods. By devising a Mobile BI Implementation (MOBII) framework, this study aims to fill in this research gap. A systematic literature review revealed the following major implementation themes: (1) value creation, (2) application deployment, (3) information security, (4) workforce mobilization, (5) information delivery and (6) device management. Moreover, expert interviews revealed twenty key considerations, which are also included in the framework. Using a single case study the MOBII framework was successfully evaluated and its practical applicability was demonstrated by adapting an actively used BI implementation method.
TL;DR: It is found that moderate usefulness is the threshold that vendors should try to achieve and simple design does not differ significantly from the design with moderate complexity and what is the tradeoff that consumers might make for accepting and adopting MO technology.
Abstract: We utilize choice-based conjoint analysis (CBC), a novel methodological approach for IS decision-making research, to investigate the relative importance of the critical factors in the decision models of consumers when evaluating intention to use mobile office services. From a survey of working professionals, we extract the hierarchy of relative importance of each critical factor influencing the adoption decision. We found that moderate usefulness is the threshold that vendors should try to achieve and simple design does not differ significantly from the design with moderate complexity. The applicability of CBC analysis in IS research is established; guidelines and implications for IT designers, managers, and researchers are presented. Our findings enable practitioners to pursue practical questions such as: 1) which factors are consumers most concerned with when electing to adopt MO technology for professional communications? and 2) what is the tradeoff that consumers might make for accepting and adopting ...
TL;DR: A qualitative analysis of data gathered via in-depth semi-structured interviews with 80 individuals leads to the Content Acceptance Model (CAM) for understanding trial, adoption, and use in the context of New Media technologies.
Abstract: New Media technologies such as social networking and video sharing used today are aimed at individuals and seem to offer utilitarian and hedonic value to users. Unlike classical information technologies, New Media technologies rely on user-generated content and generally take users through the stages of trial, adoption, and use. Prior literature on technology acceptance provides an understanding of how users engage with information systems and the individual, technology, and environmental factors that influence adoption and use. However, little is known about the combination of trial, adoption, and use stages and how the content of information technologies impact behavior. A qualitative analysis of data gathered via in-depth semi-structured interviews with 80 individuals leads us to the Content Acceptance Model (CAM) for understanding trial, adoption, and use in the context of New Media technologies.
TL;DR: Software effort estimation models using Artificial Neural Network (ANN) ensembles and regression analysis are developed based on data collected from 163 software development projects to achieve superior effort estimation results.
Abstract: Accurate software effort estimation is crucial for software consulting organizations to stay competitive in their software development costs and retain customers. Artificial Neural Network (ANN) is an effective tool to obtain accurate effort estimates. In this paper, software effort estimation models using Artificial Neural Network (ANN) ensembles and regression analysis are developed based on data collected from 163 software development projects. The main emphasis of the paper is in developing an effective experimental design to achieve superior effort estimation results. In addition, we compare the software effort estimation of ANNs and multiple regression analysis. We found two interesting results. First, variables other than size (function points) are not especially helpful in predicting software development effort. Second, a properly designed ANN ensemble significantly outperforms estimation using regression analysis and can achieve better effort estimate predictions.
TL;DR: This research examines how project duration relates to specific individual risk factors that threaten virtual projects, i.e. where team members are not co-located and must rely heavily on computer mediated communication.
Abstract: This research examines how project duration relates to specific individual risk factors that threaten virtual projects, i.e. where team members are not co-located and must rely heavily on computer mediated communication. A total of 557 project management practitioners completed an online survey concerning the impact of each of 55 risk factors on one of their recently completed virtual projects. MANOVA analysis on the ten factors with the highest risk effect (REff) levels demonstrated a clear relationship between project duration and six of the ten factors. These six risks were significantly higher on longer duration projects, suggesting that (1) these risks need to be followed more closely on longer duration projects, and (2) projects whose schedules increase over time may be at greater risk than their risk analyses might indicate. Reasons why some risk factors have a duration effect, while others do not, are explored.
TL;DR: This paper asserts that in order to improve knowledge management, higher education institutions should integrate their process and data models in conjunction with the knowledge management perspective.
Abstract: This paper asserts that in order to improve knowledge management, higher education institutions (HEIs) should integrate their process and data models in conjunction with the knowledge management pe...
TL;DR: The findings indicate that cooperative norms and effective communication engender trust, whereas an accreditation mechanism eliminates distrust, which positively influences developers' intention to continue participating, whereas distrust negatively influences it.
Abstract: Few open source software (OSS) projects have been great success stories. One reason for this is project stagnation after developers quit their projects. This fact has motivated researchers to examine the factors that influence developers' intention to continue their participation. One factor is trust among developers. The effects of trust on developers' intention to remain with their projects have been studied. However, little is known about its conceptual counterpart, distrust. This dearth of knowledge motivates our research. First, we studied what OSS project features affect trust and distrust among developers. Second, we examined how trust and distrust influence developers' intention to continue participating. We tested our hypotheses with 451 data points from an online survey. Our findings indicate that cooperative norms and effective communication engender trust, whereas an accreditation mechanism eliminates distrust. Additionally, trust positively influences their intention to continue participating...
TL;DR: The results indicate the value of the socio-technical model in identifying risks and how control portfolios should change over the course of a system development.
Abstract: Risks must be controlled during the development of a new system in order to best promote success. However, resources that can be dedicated to controlling risks are often limited. To best design an effective and efficient portfolio of controls, it is important to understand if and how risks change during the course of a system development. Using a framework developed from socio-technical theories, we conduct a multiple case study to determine the pattern of risk dynamics through the stages of the development life cycle. Risks associated with structural concerns dominate and increase as the life cycle progress, while technology risks are not very common early, but become so later. Risks associated with tasks and actor are common and do not change much in incidence. The results indicate the value of the socio-technical model in identifying risks and how control portfolios should change over the course of a system development.
TL;DR: It is highlighted that a partnership between users and developers during the development process mitigates certain risks and improves eventual outcomes of IS development projects.
Abstract: Risks related to users are a major concern in the development of information systems (IS). This study examines whether partnering efforts made between users and IS developers are successful in reducing the realization of user-related risks during system development. We employ risk factors identified in the literature to drive a confirmation of risk reduction via partnering efforts between users and developers. A survey of system development project managers provides the data for confirmation. Indications from the survey include risk reducing benefits from establishing problem resolution, continuous improvement, and common goals at the commencement of any new development project. This study highlights that a partnership between users and developers during the development process mitigates certain risks and improves eventual outcomes of IS development projects.
TL;DR: It is confirmed that requirements uncertainty negatively moderates the effects of sequential development and of investment in architectural design, and that early feedback throughout the development process is helpful at any level of requirements uncertainty, potentially dependent on the business relationship between the customer and the software project team.
Abstract: Only a few studies have analyzed the indirect effect that different levels of requirements uncertainty have on the effects of established flexible development techniques. Whereas much of what we know relates to the development of commercial off-the-shelf software (COTS), in this empirical study, we investigate contract software development projects undertaken for a specific contractor / customer. We analyze how requirements uncertainty moderates the effects of (1) sequential development, (2) investment in architectural design, and (3) intensity of early feedback on the performance of contract software development projects. We confirm that requirements uncertainty negatively moderates the effects of sequential development and of investment in architectural design. For flexible development approaches, the value of investment in architectural design falls with increasing uncertainty. Early feedback throughout the development process is helpful at any level of requirements uncertainty, potentially dependent o...
TL;DR: The results of this paper suggest that IS education research is global in nature with several leading institutions outside of North America including universities in Australia, Belgium, Greece, Hong Kong, Israel, Taiwan, and the United Kingdom.
Abstract: Information systems (IS) education research is an integral part of the IS academic community. Research on timely issues such as techniques for innovative teaching, methods for addressing the recent enrollment crisis, and revisions to the IS curriculum are vital to the IS discipline. This paper defines the scope of information systems education research and identifies the top research journals that publish research related to information systems education. Ultimately, this paper reports on research productivity in information systems education at both the institutional and individual faculty levels for the period 2005-2010. The results of this paper suggest that IS education research is global in nature with several leading institutions outside of North America including universities in Australia, Belgium, Greece, Hong Kong, Israel, Taiwan, and the United Kingdom. In addition, several universities prominent in overall IS research productivity were also prominent in IS education research.
TL;DR: It is concluded that trade in knowledge market is an important factor to activate knowledge transfer, and horizontal organization and a strategy that pursues an organization's objectives positively impact knowledge sharing culture, while knowledge technology (KMS) and reward positively affect the trade inknowledge market.
Abstract: This article empirically analyzes a model of knowledge transfer activation based on trade in knowledge market perspective. We aim to provide insights into trade in the knowledge market through an empirical analysis. Using a research model with a theoretical basis on knowledge sharing culture and trade in knowledge market, we conducted an empirical study using data on enterprises' knowledge management systems (KMSs). The results revealed that 62.6% of the variance in knowledge transfer activation was explained by the items of knowledge organization, knowledge strategy, KMS, and knowledge reward through knowledge sharing culture and trade in knowledge market. This suggests that horizontal organization and a strategy that pursues an organization's objectives positively impact knowledge sharing culture, while knowledge technology (KMS) and reward positively affect the trade in knowledge market. We therefore conclude that trade in knowledge market is an important factor to activate knowledge transfer. This art...
TL;DR: Data collected from student subjects through a web-based experiment show that credibility of a governance mechanism has a positive effect on individuals' use of content from web pages, while also influencing their perceptions of content quality.
Abstract: This study investigates how people use content from websites when there are mechanisms that validate content on those sites. Specifically, we examine the effects of two governance mechanisms, expert- and community-governance, on content usage from two web pages. We draw upon the elaboration-likelihood model as the theoretical basis to postulate hypotheses for empirical testing. Data collected from student subjects through a web-based experiment show that credibility of a governance mechanism has a positive effect on individuals' use of content from web pages, while also influencing their perceptions of content quality. Research and practical implications of our findings are discussed.
TL;DR: An enhanced association rulemining algorithm is proposed that introduces new weightage validation in the conventional association rule mining algorithms to validate the utility and its consistency in the mined association rules.
Abstract: Frequent itemset mining and association rule generation is a challenging task in data stream. Even though, various algorithms have been proposed to solve the issue, it has been found out that only frequency does not decides the significance interestingness of the mined itemset and hence the association rules. This accelerates the algorithms to mine the association rules based on utility i.e. proficiency of the mined rules. However, fewer algorithms exist in the literature to deal with the utility as most of them deals with reducing the complexity in frequent itemset/association rules mining algorithm. Also, those few algorithms consider only the overall utility of the association rules and not the consistency of the rules throughout a defined number of periods. To solve this issue, in this paper, an enhanced association rule mining algorithm is proposed. The algorithm introduces new weightage validation in the conventional association rule mining algorithms to validate the utility and its consistency in the mined association rules. The utility is validated by the integrated calculation of the cost/price efficiency of the itemsets and its frequency. The consistency validation is performed at every defined number of windows using the probability distribution function, assuming that the weights are normally distributed. Hence, validated and the obtained rules are frequent and utility efficient and their interestingness are distributed throughout the entire time period. The algorithm is implemented and the resultant rules are compared against the rules that can be obtained from conventional mining algorithms.