Fused Deposition Modeling for Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs): A Review

TLDR: In this article, an extensive review of fused deposition modeling and its application in the development of high performance UAVs is presented, including the process methodology, materials, post processing, and properties of its products.

Abstract: Additive Manufacturing (AM) is a game changing production technology for aerospace applications. Fused deposition modeling is one of the most widely used AM technologies and recently has gained much attention in the advancement of many products. This paper introduces an extensive review of fused deposition modeling and its application in the development of high performance unmanned aerial vehicles. The process methodology, materials, post processing, and properties of its products are discussed in details. Successful examples of using this technology for making functional, lightweight, and high endurance unmanned aerial vehicles are also highlighted. In addition, major opportunities, limitations, and outlook of fused deposition modeling are also explored. The paper shows that the emerge of fused deposition modeling as a robust technique for unmanned aerial vehicles represents a good opportunity to produce compact, strong, lightweight structures, and functional parts with embedded electronic.

Figures

Figure 14: Cross-section perfilometry of an opened FDM PLA microchannel [115] , with kind permission from Elsevier.

Figure 3: (a) SEM images carbon fibre distribution in 0.2 mm layer thickness, (b) SEM images carbon fibre distribution in 0.4 mm layer thickness, (c) Elastic modulus as a function of layer height, (d) Maximum strength as a function of layer height [70] , with kind permission from Wiley.

Figure 7: Scanning electron microscope images of an ABS sample (a) without Actone vapour smoothing (b) after smoothing [91] , with kind permission from Elsevier.

Table 1: Summary of AM technologies

Figure 1: Number of AM publications globally per year.

Figure 12: An Example of 3D printed aerofoil model using FDM [110] , Free to copy and redistribute.

Full text

This is the peer reviewed version of the following article: Klippstein, Helge, Sanchez, Alejandro Diaz De Cerio,
Hassanin, Hany, Zweiri, Yahya and Seneviratne, Lakmal (2018) Fused deposition modelling for unmanned aerial
vehicles : a review. Advanced Engineering Materials, 20(2), 700552. ISSN (print) 1438-1656, which has been published
in final form at http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/adem.201700552. This article may be used for non-commercial purposes in
accordance with Wiley Terms and Conditions for Self-Archiving.

1
Fused Deposition Modelling for Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs): A
Review
Helge Klippstein
1
, Alejandro Diaz De Cerio Sanchez
1
, Hany Hassanin
1,*
,Yahya Zweiri
1, 2
and Lakmal Seneviratne
3
1
School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Kingston University, London SW15
3DW, UK
2
Visiting Associate Professor, Robotics Institute, Khalifa University of Science and
Technology, P.O. Box 127788, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
3
Robotics Institute, Khalifa University of Science and Technology, P.O. Box 127788, Abu
Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
Keywords: unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), additive manufacturing, fused deposition
modelling
[*] Corresponding author: Dr Hany Hassanin, Email:h.hassanin@kingston.ac.uk
Abstract
Additive Manufacturing (AM) is a game changing production technology for aerospace
applications. Fused deposition modelling is one of the most widely used AM technologies and
recently has gained much attention in the advancement of many products. This paper
introduces an extensive review of fused deposition modelling and its application in the
development of high performance unmanned aerial vehicles. The process methodology,
materials, post processing, and properties of its products are discussed in details. Successful
examples of using this technology for making functional, lightweight and high endurance
unmanned aerial vehicles are also highlighted. In addition, major opportunities, limitations,
and outlook of fused deposition modelling are also explored. The paper shows that the emerge
of fused deposition modelling as a robust technique for unmanned aerial vehicles represents a
good opportunity to produce compact, strong, lightweight structures, and functional parts with
embedded electronic.

2
1. Introduction
Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) have significantly developed since they first appeared
during World War I. However, the research and development of UAVs in recent years have
gained much attention, not only for military purposes, but also for civil applications. UAVs
are defined as generic air vehicles capable to work autonomously without a pilot on-board
[1]
.
They are considered as a valuable and ubiquitous technology in many applications such as
mapping, topography, telecommunications, surveillance, and agricultural management
[2-7]
.
The advancement of this technology into such applications was possible for various reasons,
such as innovations in structural and aerodynamic designs, introduction of new lightweight
materials and manufacturing technologies, and development of sensing and control systems.
Designs of UAVs have been evolved into several categories in order to provide the optimal
solution in terms of functionality and cost. The main differences between these categories are
the lift and thrust generation systems
[8]
. The most common types of UAVs are multi-rotors,
fixed-wing, flapping wing and hybrid systems. A schematic diagram of UAVs’ categories is
shown in Error! Reference source not found..
Multi-rotor system is the most popular type of UAVs because it is used for versatile
applications, such as cargo delivery, aerial photography, recreational purposes, and sports
activities. The number of rotors can goes from one and up to twelve. However, the most
common models are the quadcopter and the hexacopter. The structure of this system is
generally a fixed frame with an equal distribution of the rotors with respect to the aircraft’s
centre of mass
[5, 6, 9]
. Fixed-wing UAVs system, on the other hand, presents the closest
resemblance to the classic avionics models. It is defined as "an air-vehicle" that uses fixed
wings in combination with forward thrust to generate lift
[8]
. Generally, fixed-wing UAV is
used in accurate mapping and monitoring applications due to its long flight endurance and
high altitude operability, which allows covering long distances, and carrying electronic

3
equipment such as cameras and sensors
[10, 11]
. Flapping wing UAVs, also known as
Ornithopter, mimic the mechanics of flying birds and insects to generate lift by using semi
rigid articulated wings. In most cases, the wings consist of an ultralight frame covered with a
membrane or rigid surface to generate lift. Flapping wing UAVs are mainly used for research
purposes thanks to their reduced size and improved manoeuvrability, along with their high
flight efficiency when compared to both the multirotor and fixed wing systems. In addition,
their low noise output makes them ideal for natural and environmental research such as
animal tracking and recording
[12, 13]
. Finally, hybrid UAVs system is a combination of the
multi-rotor and fixed-wing UAVs. The combination of these two models has enhanced its
capabilities to allow a vertical take-off and landing
[14]
.
Figure 1: Different UAVs Configurations.
(a) Multi rotor (quadcopter)
(b) Fixed Wing
(c) Flapped Wing
(d) Hybrid

4
Successful developments of UAVs depend on producing low-cost and high endurance
platforms. Reducing the structural weight is one of the influential factors to improve UAVs’
performance and increase their payload carrying capacity. This can be achieved by using
lightweight structure and electronics. However, there are limitations in reducing UAVs
weight, especially with regards to the battery pack and equipped electronics. Hence, UAVs’
frame becomes the relevant part in the design process.
Materials developments and advances in manufacturing technologies are useful tools to
improve lightweight frames. One of the revolutionary manufacturing technologies is additive
manufacturing (AM). Owing to its high design freedom, lighter parts with high functionality
started to contribute in the advancement of a variety of industries such as aerospace
[15, 16]
,
automotive
[17-19]
, biomedical
[20-22]
, fashion and art
[23]
. Additive manufacturing, Rapid
prototyping, and 3D printing are often taken as synonym. However, there are differences
between those terms. Rapid prototyping is the concept of fast generated prototypes based on a
digital model. This can be done via material removal as well as additive manufacturing
methods
[24]
. The definition of additive manufacturing is purely the class of material adding
technologies
[25-27]
. On the other hand, the term "3D printing" is basically the method within
the AM class of ink-jet or ploy-Jet technologies
[28]
. AM technique was invented in 1984 and
the first prototyping machine was built by Chuck Hull
[29]
based on the stereo-lithography
method. However, the technology has gained much attention during the past ten years due to
significant improvements in product lifecycle management (PLM) solutions and in computer
numerical control (CNC) techniques. AM is not only considered as a disruptive technology
[30]
, but also as one of the fast growing sectors in the market. Based on Wohlers Associates
report
[31]
, the estimated global market for AM is more than US$ 5.1 billion in 2015 with a
corporate annual growth rate (CAGR) of more than 25.9%. A strong market growth is
furthermore expected, as the technology becomes more mature for end users with

Frequently asked questions

Q1. What have the authors contributed in "Fused deposition modelling for unmanned aerial vehicles (uavs): a review" ?

This paper introduces an extensive review of fused deposition modelling and its application in the development of high performance unmanned aerial vehicles. The process methodology, materials, post processing, and properties of its products are discussed in details. The paper shows that the emerge of fused deposition modelling as a robust technique for unmanned aerial vehicles represents a good opportunity to produce compact, strong, lightweight structures, and functional parts with embedded electronic. 

Q2. What have the authors stated for future works in "Fused deposition modelling for unmanned aerial vehicles (uavs): a review" ?

In addition to research institutions, universities, and industries, successful examples showed that hobbyists significantly contributed in adopting FDM technology for the development of UAVs. Although most of the process potentials are well known, many of the presented works are still in the early stages and more research are required on the materials, design, control, and manufacturing process in order to enhance the process capabilities to fit a broad range of UAVs users. 

Q3. What is the common technique used to build near net shape metal components?

Selective laser melting (SLM) is one of the important techniques to build near net shape metal components with complex geometries. 

Q4. Why does FDM have a significant effect on the strength of the part?

Porosity formation is mainly because of the non-ideal deposition, which has a significant effect on the strength of the FDM part. 

Q5. What other technologies were used to build Jet engine outlet?

Although the majority of the parts were built using FDM, other AM technologies such as laser sintering were also used to build Jet engine outlet. 

Q6. What are the main issues that lead to a major change in the properties of the filaments?

issues such as mixing of colours and degradation in the material lead to a major change in the filaments properties [137, 138] . 

Q7. What is the common technique used to produce 3D structures from curable materials?

vat photo-polymerization is a well-known AM technique to produce 3D structures from curable resin materials subjected to photo-polymerization. 

Q8. What is the main reason for FDM becoming so popular?

One of the most relevant reasons for FDM technique becoming so popular is that it is a costeffective production tool used by minimally trained users all the way up to research and industrial scale for manufacturing of customised products. 

Q9. What is the common method of removal of dissolvable supports?

On the other hand, chemical leaching is used to remove dissolvable supports by placing the printed parts in a bath with a solvent [87] . 

Q10. What is the process used to produce the metal component?

the polymer is used as binder and mixed with stainless steel powder followed by a debinding and sintering process to achieve the metal component. 

Q11. What limitations are there in the manufacturing of customised products?

manufacturing ofcustomised products involves the use of CAD and conventional machining with all of its limitations, which restrict the range. 

Q12. How was the electric current transferred in the printed FDM samples?

CNT improvedthe electric conductivity of PEI and the electric current was successfully transferred in the printed FDM samples. 

Q13. How do you minimize the stair stepping effect?

To minimize the stair stepping effect, Hai-Chuan Song et al. [86] used a novel algorithm to control the layer thickness by introducing a sub-layer in z-direction to improve sloped surfaces. 

Q14. What is the advantage of using multi-materials, composites, metamaterials and colour?

This includes producing more integrated and complex parts making this technology simple, fast, and practical with a wide range of materials and colours. 

Q15. What was the key factor to accelerate wings and functionalsurfaces for aero and fluid dynamics?

FDM manufacturing process was a key factor to accelerate wings and functionalsurfaces for aero and fluid dynamics, seeFigure 12 [110] . 

Q16. What is the main reason why FDM is becoming so popular?

In general, the increased demand of FDM and noticeable cost reduction in its materials and printers has boosted the widespread of this technology in many fields. 

Q17. What is the effect of the VGCFs on the mechanical strength of ABS?

An improvement in the mechanical strength was noted for the developed VGCFs/ABS samples suggesting that the VGCFs provided additional strength and stiffness and changed the fracture from ductile to brittle [71] . 

Q18. What was the common use of FDM in UAVs?

The classic use of FDM was found in printing prototypes for UAVs parts to be modelled inside a wind tunnel aiming to predict aerodynamics of the proposed designs. 

Q19. How much CNT was added to the developed filament?

The tensile strength of the developed filament was increased from 89 ± 7 MPa to 112 ± 4 MPa with the addition of 4.7 wt.% of CNT.