Showing papers in "Landscape Ecology in 2016"

Multi-scale habitat selection modeling: a review and outlook

Abstract: Scale is the lens that focuses ecological relationships. Organisms select habitat at multiple hierarchical levels and at different spatial and/or temporal scales within each level. Failure to properly address scale dependence can result in incorrect inferences in multi-scale habitat selection modeling studies. Our goals in this review are to describe the conceptual origins of multi-scale habitat selection modeling, evaluate the current state-of-the-science, and suggest ways forward to improve analysis of scale-dependent habitat selection. We reviewed more than 800 papers on habitat selection from 23 major ecological journals published between 2009 and 2014 and recorded a number of characteristics, such as whether they addressed habitat selection at multiple scales, what attributes of scale were evaluated, and what analytical methods were utilized. Our results show that despite widespread recognition of the importance of multi-scale analyses of habitat relationships, a large majority of published habitat ecology papers do not address multiple spatial or temporal scales. We also found that scale optimization, which is critical to assess scale dependence, is done in less than 5 % of all habitat selection modeling papers and less than 25 % of papers that address “multi-scale” habitat analysis broadly defined. Our review confirms the existence of a powerful conceptual foundation for multi-scale habitat selection modeling, but that the majority of studies on wildlife habitat are still not adopting multi-scale frameworks. Most importantly, our review points to the need for wider adoption of a formal scale optimization of organism response to environmental variables.

Habitat fragmentation and biodiversity conservation: key findings and future challenges

Abstract: Habitat loss and fragmentation has long been considered the primary cause for biodiversity loss and ecosystem degradation worldwide, and is a key research topic in landscape ecology (Wu 2013). Habitat fragmentation often refers to the reduction of continuous tracts of habitat to smaller, spatially distinct remnant patches, and habitat loss typically occurs concurrently with habitat fragmentation (Collinge 2009). Although some habitats are naturally patchy in terms of abiotic and biotic conditions (Wu and Loucks 1995), human actions have profoundly fragmented landscapes across the word (Haddad et al. 2015), altering the quality and connectivity of habitats. Therefore, understanding the causes and consequences of habitat fragmentation is critical to preserving biodiversity and ecosystem functioning. From May 4th to 10th, 2015, an International Workshop on Habitat Fragmentation and Biodiversity Conservation, held at the Thousand Island Lake, Zhejiang, China, discussed threats to biodiversity in fragmented landscapes and how fragmentation research can identify and help mitigate these threats. To meet these challenges, the Workshop had three goals. The first was to synthesize key findings in fragmentation science. Second was to identify important remaining research questions concerning the relationships between habitat fragmentation, biodiversity, and ecosystem functioning at local, regional, and global scales. Finally, we examined the unique roles of field-based fragmentation experiments in addressing these questions. The Workshop’s findings are relevant to the broader ecological community, and we present them here to stimulate research that will advance landscape ecology and conservation biology.

Micro-scale urban surface temperatures are related to land-cover features and residential heat related health impacts in Phoenix, AZ USA

Abstract: With rapidly expanding urban regions, the effects of land cover changes on urban surface temperatures and the consequences of these changes for human health are becoming progressively larger problems. We investigated residential parcel and neighborhood scale variations in urban land surface temperature, land cover, and residents’ perceptions of landscapes and heat illnesses in the subtropical desert city of Phoenix, AZ USA. We conducted an airborne imaging campaign that acquired high resolution urban land surface temperature data (7 m/pixel) during the day and night. We performed a geographic overlay of these data with high resolution land cover maps, parcel boundaries, neighborhood boundaries, and a household survey. Land cover composition, including percentages of vegetated, building, and road areas, and values for NDVI, and albedo, was correlated with residential parcel surface temperatures and the effects differed between day and night. Vegetation was more effective at cooling hotter neighborhoods. We found consistencies between heat risk factors in neighborhood environments and residents’ perceptions of these factors. Symptoms of heat-related illness were correlated with parcel scale surface temperature patterns during the daytime but no corresponding relationship was observed with nighttime surface temperatures. Residents’ experiences of heat vulnerability were related to the daytime land surface thermal environment, which is influenced by micro-scale variation in land cover composition. These results provide a first look at parcel-scale causes and consequences of urban surface temperature variation and provide a critically needed perspective on heat vulnerability assessment studies conducted at much coarser scales.

What determines the spatial extent of landscape effects on species

Abstract: Landscape ecologists are often interested in measuring the effects of an environmental variable on a biological response; however, the strength and direction of effect depend on the size of the area within which the environmental variable is measured. Thus a central objective is to identify the optimal spatial extent within which to measure the environmental variable, i.e. the “scale of effect”. Our objectives are (1) to provide a comprehensive summary of the hypotheses concerning what determines the scale of effect, (2) to provide predictions that can be tested in empirical studies, and (3) to show, with a review of the literature, that most of these predictions have so far been inadequately tested. We propose 14 predictions derived from five hypotheses explaining what determines the scale of effect, and review the literature (if any) supporting each prediction. These predictions involve five types of factors: (A) species traits, (B) landscape variables, (C) biological responses (e.g. abundance vs. occurrence), (D) indirect influences, and (E) regional context of the study. We identify methodological issues that hinder estimation of the scale of effect. Of the 14 predictions, only nine have been tested empirically and only five have received some empirical support. Most support is from simulation studies. Empirical evidence usually does not support predictions. The study of the spatial scale at which landscape variables influence biological outcomes is in its infancy. We provide directions for future research by clarifying predictions concerning the determinants of the scale of effect.

Spatial patterns of cultural ecosystem services provision in Southern Patagonia.

Abstract: Context Although there is a need to develop a spatially explicit methodological approach that addresses the social importance of cultural ecosystem services for regional planning, few studies have analysed the spatial distribution on the cultural ecosystem services based on social perceptions. Objective The main objective of this study was to identify cultural ecosystem service hot-spots, and factors that characterize such hot-spots and define the spatial associations between cultural ecosystem services in Southern Patagonia (Argentina). Methods The study was carried out in Southern Patagonia (243.9 thousand km 2 ) located between 46 and 55 SL with the Andes mountains on the western fringe and the Atlantic Ocean on the eastern fringe of the study area. The study region has a range of different vegetation types (grasslands, shrub-lands, peat-lands and forests) though the cold arid steppe is the main vegetation type. We used geo-tagged digital images that local people and visitors posted in the Panoramio web platform to identify hot-spots of four cultural ecosystem services (aesthetic value, existence value, recreation and local identity) and relate these hot-spots with social and biophysical landscape features.

Estimating landscape resistance from habitat suitability: effects of data source and nonlinearities

Abstract: Conservation corridors must facilitate long-distance dispersal movements to promote gene flow, prevent inbreeding, and allow animals to shift ranges with climate change. Least-cost models are used to identify areas that support long-distance movement. These models rely on estimates of landscape resistance, which are typically derived from habitat suitability. We examine two key steps in estimating resistance from habitat suitability: choosing a procedure to estimate habitat suitability, and choosing a transformation function to translate habitat suitability into resistance. We used linear and nonlinear functions to convert three types of habitat suitability estimates (from expert opinion, resource selection functions, and step selection functions) into resistances for elk (Cervus canadensis) and desert bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis nelsoni). We evaluated the resulting resistance maps on an independent set of observed long-distance, prospecting movements. A negative exponential function best described the relationship between resistance values and habitat suitability for desert bighorn sheep indicating long-distance movers readily travel through moderately-suitable areas and avoid only the least suitable habitat. For desert bighorn sheep, all three suitability estimates performed better than chance, and resource and step selection functions outperformed expert opinion. For elk, all three suitability estimates performed the same as chance. When designing corridors to facilitate long-distance movements of mobile animals, we recommend transforming habitat suitability into resistance with a negative exponential function. Use of an exponential transformation means that larger fractions of the landscape offer low resistance, allowing greater flexibility in where a corridor is located.

Fire legacies impact conifer regeneration across environmental gradients in the U.S. northern Rockies

Abstract: An increase in the incidence of large wildfires worldwide has prompted concerns about the resilience of forest ecosystems, particularly in the western U.S., where recent changes are linked with climate warming and 20th-century land management practices. To study forest resilience to recent wildfires, we examined relationships among fire legacies, landscape features, ecological conditions, and patterns of post-fire conifer regeneration. We quantified regeneration across 182 sites in 21 recent large fires in dry mixed-conifer forests of the U.S. northern Rockies. We used logistic and negative binomial regression to predict the probability of establishment and abundance of conifers 5–13 years post-fire. Seedling densities varied widely across all sites (0–127,500 seedlings ha−1) and were best explained by variability in distance to live seed sources (β = −0.014, p = 0.002) and pre-fire tree basal area (β = 0.072, p = 0.008). Beyond 95 m from the nearest live seed source, the probability of seedling establishment was low. Across all the fires we studied, 75 % of the burned area with high tree mortality was within this 95-m threshold, suggesting the presence of live seed trees to facilitate natural regeneration. Combined with the mix of species present within the burn mosaic, dry mixed-conifer forests will be resilient to large fires across our study region, provided that seedlings survive, fire do not become more frequent, high-severity patches do not get significantly larger, and post-fire climate conditions remain suitable for seedling establishment and survival.

The impact of land use/land cover scale on modelling urban ecosystem services

Abstract: Urbanisation places increasing stress on ecosystem services; however existing methods and data for testing relationships between service delivery and urban landscapes remain imprecise and uncertain. Unknown impacts of scale are among several factors that complicate research. This study models ecosystem services in the urban area comprising the towns of Milton Keynes, Bedford and Luton which together represent a wide range of the urban forms present in the UK. The objectives of this study were to test (1) the sensitivity of ecosystem service model outputs to the spatial resolution of input data, and (2) whether any resultant scale dependency is constant across different ecosystem services and model approaches (e.g. stock- versus flow-based). Carbon storage, sediment erosion, and pollination were modelled with the InVEST framework using input data representative of common coarse (25 m) and fine (5 m) spatial resolutions. Fine scale analysis generated higher estimates of total carbon storage (9.32 vs. 7.17 kg m−2) and much lower potential sediment erosion estimates (6.4 vs. 18.1 Mg km−2 year−1) than analyses conducted at coarser resolutions; however coarse-scale analysis estimated more abundant pollination service provision. Scale sensitivities depend on the type of service being modelled; stock estimates (e.g. carbon storage) are most sensitive to aggregation across scales, dynamic flow models (e.g. sediment erosion) are most sensitive to spatial resolution, and ecological process models involving both stocks and dynamics (e.g. pollination) are sensitive to both. Care must be taken to select model data appropriate to the scale of inquiry.

Connecting models to movements: testing connectivity model predictions against empirical migration and dispersal data

Abstract: Connectivity has become a top conservation priority in response to landscape fragmentation. Many methods have been developed to identify areas of the landscape with high potential connectivity for wildlife movement. However, each makes different assumptions that may produce different predictions, and few comparative tests against empirical movement data are available. We compared predictive performance of the most-used connectivity models, cost-distance and circuit theory models. We hypothesized that cost-distance would better predict elk migration paths, while circuit theory would better predict wolverine dispersal paths, due to alignment of the methods’ assumptions with the movement ecology of each process. We used each model to predict elk migration paths and wolverine dispersal paths in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem, then used telemetry data collected from actual movements to assess predictive performance. Methods for validating connectivity models against empirical data have not been standardized, thus we applied and compared four alternative methods. Our findings generally supported our hypotheses. Circuit theory models consistently predicted wolverine dispersal paths better than cost-distance, though cost-distance models predicted elk migration paths only slightly better than circuit theory. In most cases, our four validation methods supported similar conclusions, but provided complementary perspectives. We reiterate suggestions that alignment of connectivity model assumptions with focal species movement ecology is an important consideration when selecting a modeling approach for conservation practice. Additional comparative tests are needed to better understand how relative model performance may vary across species, movement processes, and landscapes, and what this means for effective connectivity conservation.

Volunteer-run cameras as distributed sensors for macrosystem mammal research

Abstract: Variation in the abundance of animals affects a broad range of ecosystem processes However, patterns of abundance for large mammals, and the effects of human disturbances on them are not well understood because we lack data at the appropriate scales We created eMammal to effectively camera-trap at landscape scale Camera traps detect animals with infrared sensors that trigger the camera to take a photo, a sequence of photos, or a video clip Through photography, camera traps create records of wildlife from known locations and dates, and can be set in arrays to quantify animal distribution across a landscape This allows linkage to other distributed networks of ecological data Through the eMammal program, we demonstrate that volunteer-based camera trapping can meet landscape scale spatial data needs, while also engaging the public in nature and science We assert that camera surveys can be effectively scaled to a macrosystem level through citizen science, but only after solving challenges of data and volunteer management We present study design and technology solutions for landscape scale camera trapping to effectively recruit, train and retain volunteers while providing efficient data workflows and quality control Our initial work with > 400 volunteers across six contiguous US states has proven that citizen scientists can deploy these camera traps properly (94 % of volunteer deployments correct) and tag the photos accurately for most species (67–100 %) Using these tools we processed 26 million images over a 2 year period The eMammal cyberinfrastructure made it possible to process far more data than any participating researcher had previously achieved The core components include an upload application using a standard metadata format, an expert review tool to ensure data quality, and a curated data repository Macrosystem scale monitoring of wildlife by volunteer-run camera traps can produce the data needed to address questions concerning broadly distributed mammals, and also help to raise public awareness on the science of conservation This scale of data will allow for linkage of large mammals to ecosystem processes now measured through national programs

Diverse landscapes have a higher abundance and species richness of spring wild bees by providing complementary floral resources over bees' foraging periods.

Abstract: Anthropogenic landscape simplification and natural habitat loss can negatively affect wild bees. Alternatively, anthropogenic land-use change may diversify landscapes, creating complementary habitats that maintain overall resource continuity and diversity. We examined the effects of landscape composition, including land-cover diversity and percent semi-natural habitat, on wild bee abundance and species richness within apples, a pollinator-dependent crop. We also explored whether different habitats within diverse landscapes can provide complementary floral resources for bees across space and time. We sampled bees during apple bloom over 2 years within 35 orchards varying in surrounding landscape diversity and percent woodland (the dominant semi-natural habitat) at 1 km radii. To assess habitat complementarity in resource diversity and temporal continuity, we sampled flowers and bees within four unique habitats, including orchards, woodlands, semi-natural grasslands, and annual croplands, over three periods from April–June. Surrounding landscape diversity positively affected both wild bee abundance and richness within orchards during bloom. Habitats in diverse landscapes had different flower communities with varying phenologies; flowers were most abundant within orchards and woodlands in mid-spring, but then declined over time, while flowers within grasslands marginally increased throughout spring. Furthermore, bee communities were significantly different between the closed-canopy habitats, orchards and woodlands, and the open habitats, grasslands and annual croplands. Our results suggest that diverse landscapes, such as ones with both open (grassland) and closed (woodland) semi-natural habitats, support spring wild bees by providing flowers throughout the entire foraging period and diverse niches to meet different species’ requirements.

Multi-scale assessment of human-induced changes to Amazonian instream habitats

Abstract: Land use change and forest degradation have myriad effects on tropical ecosystems. Yet their consequences for low-order streams remain very poorly understood, including in the world´s largest freshwater basin, the Amazon. Determine the degree to which physical and chemical characteristics of the instream habitat of low-order Amazonian streams change in response to past local- and catchment-level anthropogenic disturbances. To do so, we collected field instream habitat (i.e., physical habitat and water quality) and landscape data from 99 stream sites in two eastern Brazilian Amazon regions. We used random forest regression trees to assess the relative importance of different predictor variables in determining changes in instream habitat response variables. Multiple drivers, operating at multiple spatial scales, were important in determining changes in the physical habitat and water quality of the sites. Although we found few similarities in modelled relationships between the two regions, we observed non-linear responses of specific instream characteristics to landscape change; for example 20 % of catchment deforestation resulted in consistently warmer streams. Our results highlight the importance of local riparian and catchment-scale forest cover in shaping instream physical environments, but also underscore the importance of other land use changes and activities, such as road crossings and upstream agriculture intensification. In contrast to the property-scale focus of the Brazilian Forest code, which governs environmental regulations on private land, our results reinforce the importance of catchment-wide management strategies to protect stream ecosystem integrity.

Spatial prioritisation for conserving ecosystem services : comparing hotspots with heuristic optimisation

Abstract: Context The variation in spatial distribution between ecosystem services can be high Hence, there is a need to spatially identify important sites for conservation planning The term ‘ecosystem service hotspot’ has often been used for this purpose, but definitions of this term are ambiguous

Net primary productivity (NPP) dynamics and associated urbanization driving forces in metropolitan areas: a case study in Beijing City, China

Abstract: Eco-environmental effects of urbanization are a focus in landscape ecology. The influences of population, economic and spatial development during the urbanization process in Beijing City, China on net primary productivity (NPP) were analyzed. The responding mechanism of NPP in different urbanization stages was also examined to develop advice about eco-environmental sustainability of urban development. Using the Carnegie Ames Stanford Approach model, we estimated NPP. Using linear regression and polynomial regression analysis, we analyzed NPP responses to stages of urbanization. High NPP areas were located in northeast Yanqing, northwest Miyun, northern Huairou and Pinggu. The distribution of NPP generally occurred in the following order from high NPP to low NPP: outer suburbs, inner suburbs, encircled city center, and inner city. Because of the heat island effect in winter, the estimated NPP in the encircled city center and inner city was higher in 2009 than in 2001. There was a negative correlation between NPP and both economic and spatial urbanization, but an increase in population did not necessarily lead to an immediate decrease in NPP. An analysis of NPP dynamics in five kinds of urban development zones showed that urbanization resulted in a lasting and observable loss of NPP over time and space, although there was some promotion of NPP in highly urbanized zones. There are three stages in the response of NPP to urbanization: damage stage, antagonistic stage, and coordination stage. The stage threshold depends on local eco-environmental management and urban planning interventions.

Quantifying landscape pattern and ecosystem service value changes in four rapidly urbanizing hill stations of Southeast Asia

Abstract: Hill stations are known for their favorable cool climate and natural environments which generate valuable ecosystem services that benefit the local population, tourists and visitors. However, rapid urbanization threatens the sustainability of these highly valued fragile landscapes. We aim to characterize and quantify the changes in the landscape patterns and ecosystem service values (ESVs) of Baguio (Philippines), Bogor (Indonesia), Dalat (Vietnam), and Pyin Oo Lwin (Myanmar), and discuss their implications to landscape sustainability. We used remote sensing imagery to map land-use/cover (2001 and 2014), and spatial metrics and gradient analysis to characterize the changes in landscape pattern. We employed a benefit transfer method to estimate the changes in ESV and human-to-ESV ratio. A land-change model was used to simulate different scenarios of future built-up expansions (2014–2030). The landscapes of Dalat and Pyin Oo Lwin are becoming more fragmented, while those of Baguio and Bogor are getting more aggregated. Dalat had the highest decrease (absolute change) in ESV and H-ESV ratio, while Bogor had the highest percentage decrease (2001–2014). Rapid urbanization has been a major factor in the landscape transformation of Baguio, Bogor, Dalat and Pyin Oo Lwin. If the current built-up expansion rate will speed up, the decline in future ESV and H-ESV ratio (2014–2030) will be higher than if the rate will continue or slow down. Unless the concept of landscape sustainability is taken seriously in landscape and urban planning, the respective ‘values’ of these precious hill stations will become less and less.

Differentiating anthropogenic modification and precipitation-driven change on vegetation productivity on the Mongolian Plateau

Abstract: The Mongolian Plateau, comprising Inner Mongolia, China (IM) and Mongolia (MG) is undergoing consistent warming and accelerated land cover/land use change. Extensive modifications of water-limited regions can alter ecosystem function and processes; hence, it is important to differentiate the impacts of human activities and precipitation dynamics on vegetation productivity. This study distinguished between human-induced and precipitation-driven changes in vegetation cover on the plateau across biome, vegetation type and administrative divisions. Non-parametric trend tests were applied to the time series of vegetation indices (VI) derived from MODIS and AVHRR and precipitation from TRMM and MERRA reanalysis data. VI residuals adjusted for rainfall were obtained from the regression between growing season maximum VI and monthly accumulated rainfall (June–August) and were used to detect human-induced trends in vegetation productivity during 1981–2010. The total livestock and population density trends were identified and then used to explain the VI residual trends. The slope of precipitation-adjusted EVI and EVI2 residuals were negatively correlated to total livestock density (R2 = 0.59 and 0.16, p < 0.05) in MG and positively correlated with total population density (R2 = 0.31, p < 0.05) in IM. The slope of precipitation-adjusted EVI and EVI2 residuals were also negatively correlated with goat density (R2 = 0.59 and 0.19, p < 0.05) and sheep density in MG (R2 = 0.59 and 0.13, p < 0.05) but not in IM. Some administrative subdivisions in IM and MG showed decreasing trends in VI residuals. These trends could be attributed to increasing livestock or population density and changes in livestock herd composition. Other subdivisions showed increasing trends residuals, suggesting that the vegetation cover increase could be attributed to conservation efforts.

Temporal and spatial patterns of wetland extent influence variability of surface water connectivity in the Prairie Pothole Region, United States

Abstract: Quantifying variability in landscape-scale surface water connectivity can help improve our understanding of the multiple effects of wetlands on downstream waterways. We examined how wetland merging and the coalescence of wetlands with streams varied both spatially (among ecoregions) and interannually (from drought to deluge) across parts of the Prairie Pothole Region. Wetland extent was derived over a time series (1990–2011) using Landsat imagery. Changes in landscape-scale connectivity, generated by the physical coalescence of wetlands with other surface water features, were quantified by fusing static wetland and stream datasets with Landsat-derived wetland extent maps, and related to multiple wetness indices. The usage of Landsat allows for decadal-scale analysis, but limits the types of surface water connections that can be detected. Wetland extent correlated positively with the merging of wetlands and wetlands with streams. Wetness conditions, as defined by drought indices and runoff, were positively correlated with wetland extent, but less consistently correlated with measures of surface water connectivity. The degree of wetland–wetland merging was found to depend less on total wetland area or density, and more on climate conditions, as well as the threshold for how wetland/upland was defined. In contrast, the merging of wetlands with streams was positively correlated with stream density, and inversely related to wetland density. Characterizing the degree of surface water connectivity within the Prairie Pothole Region in North America requires consideration of (1) climate-driven variation in wetness conditions and (2) within-region variation in wetland and stream spatial arrangements.

Linking long-term landscape dynamics to the multiple interactions among ecosystem services in the European Alps

Abstract: Human driven land-use and land-cover change (LULC) is considered to be among the greatest ecological pressures in mountain regions. Over the past century, across the European Alps, extensive LULC changes have been observed, affecting ecosystem goods and services (ESs). For eight case study sites across the Alpine arc we aimed to provide a spatiotemporal explicit assessment of the impacts of LULC dynamics on ES provision and interactions, including cultivated crops, plant material, climate regulation, soil erosion control and aesthetics. We quantified ES provision in biophysical terms at four time periods (1850, 1955, 1985, 2005) using spatially explicit LULC based assessment models. ES interactions were identified by statistically analyzing the spatiotemporal pattern among ES capacities. Over the past century forested areas have increased mainly at the cost of grasslands, while on easily accessible sites and fertile valley floors agricultural intensification occurred. ES provision shifted between 1850 and 2005, from a predominance of production ESs in 1850 to a landscape characterized by regulating ESs in 2005. Spatiotemporal analyses of ES interactions revealed trade-offs between regulating and cultural ESs and within the provisioning ES bundle and allowed to derive three different ES trajectories: regions developing from single to multifunctional sites in terms of service provision, sites reducing their service capacities and sites with rather stationary patterns over broad time periods. We demonstrated that ES capacities in complex agro-ecological mountain regions are highly sensitive to long-term landscape dynamics. We conclude that assessing ES capacities and interactions in an explicitly spatiotemporal manner can help to guide evidence-based environmental measures.

Using step and path selection functions for estimating resistance to movement: pumas as a case study

Abstract: GPS telemetry collars and their ability to acquire accurate and consistently frequent locations have increased the use of step selection functions (SSFs) and path selection functions (PathSFs) for studying animal movement and estimating resistance. However, previously published SSFs and PathSFs often do not accommodate multiple scales or multi-scale modeling. We present a method that allows multiple scales to be analyzed with SSF and PathSF models. We also explore the sensitivity of model results and resistance surfaces to whether SSFs or PathSFs are used, scale, prediction framework, and GPS collar sampling interval. We use 5-min GPS collar data from pumas (Puma concolor) in southern California to model SSFs and PathSFs at multiple scales, to predict resistance using two prediction frameworks (paired and unpaired), and to explore potential bias from GPS collar sampling intervals. Regression coefficients were extremely sensitive to scale and pumas exhibited multiple scales of selection during movement. We found PathSFs produced stronger regression coefficients, larger resistance values, and superior model performance than SSFs. We observed more heterogeneous surfaces when resistance was predicted in a paired framework compared with an unpaired framework. Lastly, we observed bias in habitat use and resistance results when using a GPS collar sampling interval longer than 5 min. The methods presented provide a novel way to model multi-scale habitat selection and resistance from movement data. Due to the sensitivity of resistance surfaces to method, scale, and GPS schedule, care should be used when modeling corridors for conservation purposes using these methods.

People, landscape, and urban heat island: dynamics among neighborhood social conditions, land cover and surface temperatures

Abstract: Urban heat island studies have found that land cover, neighborhood social conditions and temperatures are correlated. This received great academic attention because of potential ecological, social and health impacts. However, the processes and causalities behind such correlations remain unclear, which impede designing effective heat mitigation approaches. Our study aims to answer two questions: (1) Do social conditions influence temperature independent of land cover? (2) Is land cover more closely associated with temperature than neighborhood social conditions or vice versa? The analysis is for the year 2000 and the Gwynns Falls watershed in Baltimore, Maryland. Census data for 297 block groups and remote sensed data for land cover and surface temperature were used. To answer question 1, we used structural equation modeling to build and compare model fitness. We conducted partial correlation and regression analysis to answer question 2. Land cover (building and trees) leads both social conditions (race and income) and temperature to vary across space. When holding land cover constant, social conditions significantly contribute to temperature variation. This study extends understanding beyond simple correlation and determined that land cover influences the spatial variation in neighborhood social conditions and temperature.

A hierarchical analysis of the relationship between urban impervious surfaces and land surface temperatures: spatial scale dependence, temporal variations, and bioclimatic modulation

Abstract: Understanding how urban impervious surfaces (UIS) affect land surface temperatures (LST) on different scales in space and time is important for urban ecology and sustainability. We examined how spatial scales, seasonal and diurnal variations, and bioclimatic settings affected the UIS–LST relationship in mainland China. We took a hierarchical approach explicitly considering three scales: the ecoregion, urban cluster, and urban core. The UIS–LST relationship was quantified with Pearson correlation using multiple remote sensing datasets. In general, UIS and LST were positively correlated in summer daytime/nighttime and winter nighttime, but negatively in winter daytime. The strength of correlation increased from broad to fine scales. The mean R2 of winter nights at the urban core scale (0.262) was 4.03 times as high as that at the ecoregion scale (0.065). The relationship showed large seasonal and diurnal variations: generally stronger in summer than in winter and stronger in nighttime than in daytime. At the urban core scale, the mean R2 of summer daytime (0.208) was 3.25 times as high as that of winter daytime (0.064), and the mean R2 of winter nighttime (0.262) was 4.10 times as high as that of winter daytime (0.064). Vegetation and climate substantially modified the relationship during summer daytime on the ecoregion scale. Our study provides new evidence that the UIS–LST relationship varies with spatial scales, diurnal/seasonal cycles, and bioclimatic context, with new insight into the cross-scale properties of the relationship. These findings have implications for mitigating urban heat island effects across scales in China and beyond.

Convergence of Microclimate in Residential Landscapes Across Diverse Cities in the United States

Abstract: The urban heat island (UHI) is a well-documented pattern of warming in cities relative to rural areas. Most UHI research utilizes remote sensing methods at large scales, or climate sensors in single cities surrounded by standardized land cover. Relatively few studies have explored continental-scale climatic patterns within common urban microenvironments such as residential landscapes that may affect human comfort. We tested the urban homogenization hypothesis which states that structure and function in cities exhibit ecological “sameness” across diverse regions relative to the native ecosystems they replaced. We deployed portable micrometeorological sensors to compare air temperature and humidity in residential yards and native landscapes across six U.S. cities that span a range of climates (Phoenix, AZ; Los Angeles, CA; Minneapolis-St. Paul, MN; Boston, MA; Baltimore, MD; and Miami, FL). Microclimate in residential ecosystems was more similar among cities than among native ecosystems, particularly during the calm morning hours. Maximum regional actual evapotranspiration (AET) was related to the morning residential microclimate effect. Residential yards in cities with maximum AET <50–65 cm/year (Phoenix and Los Angeles) were generally cooler and more humid than nearby native shrublands during summer mornings, while yards in cities above this threshold were generally warmer (Baltimore and Miami) and drier (Miami) than native forests. On average, temperature and absolute humidity were ~6 % less variable among residential ecosystems than among native ecosystems from diverse regions. These data suggest that common residential land cover and structural characteristics lead to microclimatic convergence across diverse regions at the continental scale.

The inclusion of stakeholders and cultural ecosystem services in land management trade-off decisions using an ecosystem services approach

Abstract: An ecosystem service approach for land-use or conservation decisions normally uses economic or biophysical assessments for valuating nature’s services. In contrast, even though ecosystem services are required for human well-being, the actual use of services by differing stakeholder groups are rarely considered in typical ecosystem service assessments, especially the more intangible, cultural ecosystem services. The aim of this research was to quantify different uses for 15 cultural and provisioning ecosystem service indicators across seven stakeholder groups in a watershed proposed with large hydroelectric dam development. We used a large-scale survey to quantify use and frequency of use for ecosystem services. We demonstrate that different stakeholder groups use ecosystem services differently, both in terms of specific ecosystem service indicators, as well as for frequency of ecosystem service use. Across all stakeholder groups, specific cultural ecosystem services were consistently more important to participants when compared to provisioning ecosystem services, especially aesthetic/scenic values. This work is of global importance as it highlights the importance of considering cultural ecosystem services (e.g. aesthetic/scenic, sense-of-place values) along with multiple stakeholder groups to identify the trade-offs and synergies during decision-making processes for land-use or conservation initiatives.

Amur tigers and leopards returning to China: direct evidence and a landscape conservation plan

Abstract: The Amur tiger and leopard, once roaming over the Eurasian continent, are now endangered and confined to the Sikhote-Alin Mountains, Russia—a landscape that has been increasingly fragmented due to human activities. The ultimate fate of these big cats depends on whether they can resettle in their previous main historical range in NE China. Recent sightings of these animals along the China–Russia border have aroused new hope, but direct evidence is lacking. The main objectives of our study were (1) to determine the abundance and spatiotemporal patterns of tigers, leopards, and primary prey; (2) to investigate factors influencing the resettlement of the two big cats; and (3) to propose a landscape-scale conservation plan to secure the long-term sustainability of the Amur tiger and leopard. We monitored the two felids, their prey, and human activities, with 380 camera-trap stations, for a total of 175,127 trap days and over an area of 6000 km2 in NE China. We used the constraint line method to characterize cattle grazing and human influences on tigers, leopards, and their prey species. Our results show that, unexpectedly, at least 26 tigers and 42 leopards are present within China, which are confined primarily to a narrow area along the border with Russia. We have further identified that cattle grazing and human disturbances are the key hurdles to the dispersal of the tigers and leopards farther into China where suitable habitat is potentially available. Amur tigers and leopards are returning to China, indeed, but their long-term resettlement is not likely without active and timely conservation efforts on landscape and regional scales. To overcome the hurdles to the resettlement of tigers and leopards in China, we propose a “Tiger and Leopard Resettlement Program” that will engage the government, local communities, and researchers, so that the long-term sustainability of the Amur tigers and leopards can be ensured.

Habitat amount, not habitat configuration, best predicts population genetic structure in fragmented landscapes

Abstract: Context Landscape structure shapes the genetic structure of populations by delimiting spatial patterns of dispersal and reproduction across generations. Thus, descriptions of human-altered landscapes can be used to predict demographic and evolutionary outcomes of populations. Effectively measuring landscape structure to predict genetic structure requires that we understand the relative importance of distinct components of landscape structure (e.g., habitat amount and configuration) in creating spatial patterns of genetic variation. Objectives We thus developed an individual-based simulation model to test predictions about the relative importance of habitat amount and configuration in producing genetic structure. We also investigated the independent relationships between components of landscape structure and the population dynamics that underlie genetic effects. Methods We ran experiments in which we allowed gene flow and population size to vary as emergent outcomes of the interactions between hypothetical populations and heterogeneous landscapes. Results We found that the amount of habitat in a landscape isa muchbetterpredictor ofgenetic structure than is habitat configuration.Thispattern holds across a range of landscapes and dispersal distances and behaviors. When habitat is non-contiguous (i.e., fragmented), habitat amount mediates production of genetic differentiation by regulating both the size and isolation of habitat patches, which in turn regulate population size and gene flow. Conclusions These results suggest that habitat amount, a simple measure that is easy to calculate, may often be the best metric for predicting population genetic structure and that when possible, measures of habitat amount and population size should be incorporated into landscape genetic studies.

Intraspecific body size increases with habitat fragmentation in wild bee pollinators

Abstract: In modern agricultural landscapes, fragmentation of partial habitats is a significant filter for multi-habitat users, reducing local taxonomic and functional diversity. There is compelling evidence that small species are more susceptible than large species. The impact of habitat fragmentation on intraspecific body-size distribution, however, is yet unexplored. We tested habitat fragmentation, a major driver of pollinator loss, for its impact on intraspecific body-size distributions of solitary wild-bee species. Subsequently, we tested individual body size for its impact on pollination services. We sampled 1272 individuals of the four most common Andrena wild bee species in 22 newly established flowering fields (0.21–0.41 ha) in Hessen, Central Germany, over two consecutive years. Study sites were located in a ca. 80 ha landscape context of increasing habitat fragmentation. We analysed the pollen loads of the most abundant species. Body size within local populations of the two medium-sized bees increased with fragmentation, suggesting intraspecific selection for higher dispersal capacity. Pollen analysis carried out for the most common species revealed that larger individuals visited a significantly smaller plant spectrum. Habitat fragmentation may thus alter pollination services without necessarily affecting species richness or composition. Systematic body-size variation at the population level thus explains the considerable variability between simple community measures and ecosystem functioning. Filtering processes at the individual level require increased understanding for targeting pollination services under current and future land-use change.

Drivers and trends in landscape patterns of stand-replacing fire in forests of the US Northern Rocky Mountains (1984–2010)

Abstract: Resilience in fire-prone forests is strongly affected by landscape burn-severity patterns, in part by governing propagule availability around stand-replacing patches in which all or most vegetation is killed. However, little is known about drivers of landscape patterns of stand-replacing fire, or whether such patterns are changing during an era of increased wildfire activity. (a) Identify key direct/indirect drivers of landscape patterns of stand-replacing fire (e.g., size, shape of patches), (b) test for temporal trends in these patterns, and (c) anticipate thresholds beyond which landscape patterns of burn severity may change fundamentally. We applied structural equation modeling to satellite burn-severity maps of fires in the US Northern Rocky Mountains (1984–2010) to test for direct and indirect (via influence on fire size and proportion stand-replacing) effects of climate/weather, vegetation, and topography on landscape patterns of stand-replacing fire. We also tested for temporal trends in landscape patterns. Landscape patterns of stand-replacing fire were strongly controlled by fire size and proportion stand-replacing, which were, in turn, controlled by climate/weather and vegetation/topography, respectively. From 1984 to 2010, the proportion of stand-replacing fire within burn perimeters increased from 0.22 to 0.27. Trends for other landscape metrics were not significant, but may respond to further increases proportion stand-replacing fire. Fires from 1984 to 2010 exhibited tremendous heterogeneity in landscape patterns of stand-replacing fire, likely promoting resilience in burned areas. If trends continue on the current trajectory, however, fires may produce larger and simpler shaped patches of stand-replacing fire with more burned area far from seed sources.

Macrosystems ecology: novel methods and new understanding of multi-scale patterns and processes

Abstract: As the global biomes are increasingly threatened by human activities, understanding of macroscale patterns and processes is pressingly needed for effective management and policy making. Macrosystems ecology, which studies multiscale eco- logical patterns and processes, has gained growing interest in the research community. However, as a relatively new field in ecology, research in macrosys- tems ecology is facing various challenges. In this special issue, we highlight the following two latest exciting developments in this thriving field: (1) novel tools and methods and (2) new understandings on macroscale patterns and processes. While we believe that the contributions featured in this issue provide promising advancements in macrosystems ecology, we also see multiple challenges for future research including (1) multidisciplinary approaches for long- term and multiscale studies and (2) scaling local patterns and processes to broader scales.

Effects of landscape configuration on mapping ecosystem service capacity: a review of evidence and a case study in Scotland

Abstract: Humans structure landscapes for the production of food, fibre and fuel, commonly resulting in declines of non-provisioning ecosystem services (ESs). Heterogeneous landscapes are capable of providing multiple ESs, and landscape configuration—spatial arrangement of land cover in the landscape—is expected to affect ES capacity. However, the majority of ES mapping studies have not accounted for landscape configuration. Our objective is to assess and quantify the relevance of configuration for mapping ES capacity. A review of empirical evidence for configuration effects on the capacity of ten ESs reveals that for four ESs configuration is relevant but typically ignored in ES quantification. For four ESs we quantify the relevance of configuration for mapping ESs using Scotland as a case study. Each ES was quantified through modelling, respectively ignoring or accounting for configuration. The difference in ES capacity between the two ES models was determined at multiple spatial scales. Configuration affected the capacity of all four ESs mapped, particularly at the cell and watershed scale. At the scale of Scotland most local effects averaged out. Flood control and sediment retention responded strongest to configuration. ESs were affected by different aspects of configuration, thus requiring specific methods for mapping each ES. Accounting for configuration is important for the assessment of certain ESs at the cell and watershed scale. Incorporating configuration in landscape management provides opportunities for spatial optimization of ES capacity, but the diverging response of ESs to configuration suggests that accounting for configuration involves trade-offs between ESs.

Forest loss and matrix composition are the major drivers shaping dung beetle assemblages in a fragmented rainforest

Abstract: Identifying the drivers shaping biological assemblages in fragmented tropical landscapes is critical for designing effective conservation strategies. It is still unclear, however, whether tropical biodiversity is more strongly affected by forest loss, by its spatial configuration or by matrix composition across different spatial scales. Assessing the relative influence of forest patch and landscape attributes on dung beetle assemblages in the fragmented Lacandona rainforest, Mexico. Using a multimodel inference approach we tested the relative impact of forest patch size and landscape forest cover (measures of forest amount at the patch and landscape scales, respectively), patch shape and isolation (forest configuration indices at the patch scale), forest fragmentation (forest configuration index at the landscape scale), and matrix composition on the diversity, abundance and biomass of dung beetles. Patch size, landscape forest cover and matrix composition were the best predictors of dung beetle assemblages. Species richness, beetle abundance, and biomass decreased in smaller patches surrounded by a lower percentage of forest cover, and in landscapes dominated by open-area matrices. Community evenness also increased under these conditions due to the loss of rare species. Forest loss at the patch and landscape levels and matrix composition show a larger impact on dung beetles than forest spatial configuration. To preserve dung beetle assemblages, and their key functional roles in the ecosystem, conservation initiatives should prioritize a reduction in deforestation and an increase in the heterogeneity of the matrix surrounding forest remnants.