Showing papers in "Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology in 2007"
TL;DR: A 10-item international PANAS Short Form (I-PANAS-SF) was developed and validated in this paper, which was used to identify systematically which 10 of the original 20 PANAS items to retain or remove.
Abstract: This article reports the development and validation of a 10-item international Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS) Short Form (I-PANAS-SF) in English. A qualitative study (N = 18) and then an exploratory quantitative study (N = 407), each using informants from a range of cultural backgrounds, were used to identify systematically which 10 of the original 20 PANAS items to retain or remove. A same-sample retest study (N = 163) was used in an initial examination of the new 10-item international PANAS's psychometric properties and to assess its correlation with the full, 20-item, original PANAS. In a series of further validation studies (N = 1,789), the cross-sample stability, internal reliability, temporal stability, cross-cultural factorial invariance, and convergent and criterion-related validities of the I-PANAS-SF were examined and found to be psychometrically acceptable.
1,615 citations
Bradley University1, University of Tartu2, National Institutes of Health3, University of California4, Pontifical Catholic University of Chile5, University of Louisville6, University of Latvia7, Pennsylvania State University8, Slovak Academy of Sciences9, University of San Carlos10, University of Malta11, Ghent University12, Clemson University13, Laval University14, University of Buenos Aires15, Osaka University16, Illinois State University17, National Autonomous University of Mexico18, University of Brasília19, University of Western Australia20, University of Lima21, Boğaziçi University22, University of Kassel23, York University24, University of Queensland25, Åbo Akademi University26, Al Akhawayn University27, University of Hawaii at Manoa28, University of Catania29, University of Otago30, University of Dhaka31, Chemnitz University of Technology32, Knox College33, Comenius University in Bratislava34, University of Rijeka35, University of Malaya36, Vilnius University37, American University of Beirut38, Kwangju Health College39, University of Salzburg40, Utrecht University41, National Computerization Agency42, City University of Hong Kong43, University of Idaho44, University of Zimbabwe45, University of Lisbon46, University of Central Lancashire47, Loyola Marymount University48, University of KwaZulu-Natal49, University of Granada50, University of Botswana51, Babeș-Bolyai University52, University of Cyprus53, University of Belgrade54, KPMG55, University of Montpellier56, University of Zurich57, University of Alabama58, Baylor University59, Queen's University Belfast60, University of Ljubljana61, University of Haifa62, University of La Serena63, Florida Atlantic University64, University of California, Davis65, University of Dar es Salaam66, Ramapo College67, Cyprus College68, Middle East Technical University69, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń70, University of the South Pacific71, Vrije Universiteit Brussel72, University at Albany, SUNY73, University of the Aegean74, University of Lethbridge75, University of Vienna76, University of Hong Kong77, Yuan Ze University78, Charles University in Prague79, Chonnam National University80, Indian Institutes of Technology81
TL;DR: The Big Five Inventory (BFI) is a self-report measure designed to assess the high-order personality traits of Extraversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, Neuroticism, and Openness as discussed by the authors.
Abstract: The Big Five Inventory (BFI) is a self-report measure designed to assess the high-order personality traits of Extraversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, Neuroticism, and Openness. As part of the International Sexuality Description Project, the BFI was translated from English into 28 languages and administered to 17,837 individuals from 56 nations. The resulting cross-cultural data set was used to address three main questions: Does the factor structure of the English BFI fully replicate across cultures? How valid are the BFI trait profiles of individual nations? And how are personality traits distributed throughout the world? The five-dimensional structure was robust across major regions of the world. Trait levels were related in predictable ways to self-esteem, sociosexuality, and national personality profiles. People from the geographic regions of South America and East Asia were significantly different in openness from those inhabiting other world regions. The discussion focuses on limitations of t...
876 citations
TL;DR: This paper examined whether the distinction between egoistic, altruistic, and biospheric value orientations is valid across different countries (i.e., Austria, Czech Republic, Italy, the Netherlands, and Sweden) by using a new value instrument.
Abstract: Various scholars argue that egoistic, altruistic, and biospheric value orientations are important for understanding environmental beliefs and behavior. However, little empirical evidence has been provided for the distinction between altruistic and biospheric values. This study examines whether this distinction is valid across different countries (i.e., Austria, Czech Republic, Italy, the Netherlands, and Sweden) by using a new value instrument. Relationships between these value orientations and behavior-specific beliefs (i.e., awareness of environmental consequences and personal norms) are investigated to further examine the validity of the value instrument. Results provide support for the generalization of the three-way distinction. Furthermore, value orientations were related to behavior-specific beliefs in all countries. The authors conclude that the distinction between the three value orientations is valid and useful for examining environmentally relevant behavior.
480 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors assess how the societal level of moral inclusiveness influences relations between individuals' universalism values and their perceptions of immigration, opposition to immigrants from different racial or ethnic groups, and participation in activities that benefit the wider society.
Abstract: Inclusiveness of the moral universe refers to the breadth of the community to which people apply moral values and rules of fairness. A preliminary study establishes the values typically viewed as moral. The author indexes moral inclusiveness at the societal level by the number of value items focused on the welfare of non-in-group members that form a distinct region in a multidimensional scaling analysis (MDS), rather than intermixing with moral values that usually relate to the in-group. Three societal characteristics predict inclusiveness of the moral universe across 66 societies: cultural egalitarianism, cultural embeddedness, and level of democratization. Using representative national samples from 21 countries, the author assesses how the societal level of moral inclusiveness influences relations between individuals' universalism values and their perceptions of immigration, opposition to immigrants from different racial or ethnic groups, and participation in activities that benefit the wider society. F...
370 citations
TL;DR: For instance, this article found that Chinese students experience higher levels of anxiety in mathematics than German students, while German students experience more enjoyment, pride, and shame, and less anger.
Abstract: The aim of this study was to establish the construct comparability and cross-cultural utility of the German and Chinese versions of the Academic Emotions Questionnaire—Mathematics (AEQ-M). Based on data from 312 German and 579 Chinese eighth-grade students, mean and covariance structures analysis revealed that the AEQ-M shows a high degree of measurement invariance across cultures. In addition, the emotions assessed by the AEQ-M showed similar patterns of relationships with self-reports of achievement, parental achievement expectations, and attributions of success and failure across the German and Chinese samples. Confirming earlier findings, Chinese students were found to experience higher levels of anxiety in mathematics. They were also found to experience more enjoyment, pride, and shame, and less anger, than German students. This research supports the use of the AEQ-M in cross-cultural research and provides data about a broader range of achievement emotions than has been investigated previously.
164 citations
TL;DR: This paper found that ethnic minority groups tend to promote interdependence and European Americans tend to focus on independence, yet evidence of both orientations has also been found within each ethnic group.
Abstract: Parents' long-term goals and values for their children vary across U.S. ethnic groups. Researchers have found that ethnic minority groups tend to promote interdependence, and European Americans tend to promote independence, yet evidence of both orientations has also been found within each ethnic group. To compare both the similarities and variations between ethnic groups, this study used a multiethnic questionnaire measuring multiple dimensions of each orientation. A sample of 343 parents from four ethnic groups completed a parental goals questionnaire, and exploratory factor analysis suggested five scales: tradition and conformity, relatedness, benevolence and prosocial, agency and self-direction, and power and achievement. All groups highly valued dimensions of both independence and interdependence, and ethnicity explained differences in all five scales, controlling for parental education level. Using an ecocultural perspective that views parent—child relationships within multiple intersecting ecologies...
126 citations
TL;DR: The authors examined the relationship between bicultural individuals' identity structure and their friendship network and found that more integrated identity structures are associated with larger and more richly interconnected circles of non-Chinese friends.
Abstract: This study examines the relationship between bicultural individuals' identity structure and their friendship network. A key dimension of identity structure for first-generation immigrants is the degree to which the secondary, host-culture identity is integrated into the primary, ethnic identity. Among first-generation Chinese Americans, regression analyses controlling for cultural identification strengths show that more integrated identity structures are associated with larger and more richly interconnected circles of non-Chinese friends.
125 citations
TL;DR: For instance, the authors found that 13.5% and 14.6% of men and women self-identified as either arousal or avoidant procrastinators, respectively, and that the tendency toward frequent delays in starting or completing tasks may be prevalent across diverse populations in spite of their distinct cultural values, norms and practices.
Abstract: Adult men (n = 582) and women (n = 765) from six nations (Spain, Peru, Venezuela, the United Kingdom, Australia, and the United States) completed two reliable and valid measures of chronic procrastination. Because both arousal and avoidant procrastination types were significantly related across the entire sample (r = .72, p < .001) and within each national sample, regression analyses calculated “pure” arousal and “pure” avoidant procrastinators, controlling for the scale scores of the other scale. Results indicated no significant sex or nationality differences within and between nations on self-reported arousal or avoidant procrastination. Overall, 13.5% and 14.6% of men and women self-identified as either arousal or avoidant procrastinators, respectively. These findings suggest that the tendency toward frequent delays in starting or completing tasks may be prevalent across diverse populations in spite of their distinct cultural values, norms, and practices.
122 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors examined the relationship between commitment forms (organizational commitment, occupational commitment, job involvement, work involvement, and group commitment) and cultural values (individualism versus collectivism, power distance, uncertainty avoidance, and masculinity versus femininity).
Abstract: This study examines the relationship between commitment forms (organizational commitment, occupational commitment, job involvement, work involvement, and group commitment) and cultural values (individualism versus collectivism, power distance, uncertainty avoidance, and masculinity versus femininity). Five groups of Israeli teachers who are assumed to represent different cultural groups (secular Jews, orthodox Jews, kibbutz teachers, Druze, and Arabs) are examined. Of the 2,269 questionnaires that are distributed in 54 schools in northern Israel, 1,328 usable questionnaires are returned, a response rate of 59%. The findings, using MANCOVA and regression analysis, show the strong effect of culture on multiple commitments. First, the five cultural groups related to commitment forms even when cultural values are controlled. Second, all of the cultural values are related to forms of commitment, and they add to the variance already explained by the cultural groups. The findings and their implications for the c...
102 citations
TL;DR: The authors proposed an intersubjective consensus approach to identify core cultural values based on the latter definition and found that endorsement of these values was related to the relative strength of identification with these cultural groups.
Abstract: Core values of a culture may refer to values endorsed by most members of the culture or to values members of the culture generally believe to be widely shared in the culture. The authors propose an intersubjective consensus approach to identifying core cultural values based on the latter definition. In three studies, they illustrated the utility of the intersubjective consensus approach for identifying the cultural values that differentiate two or more nested cultural groups. They showed that endorsement of these values was related to the relative strength of identification with these cultural groups. The findings from the present research have important implications for social identity theories and acculturation research.
100 citations
TL;DR: The authors explored the psychological mechanisms that underlie the retirement planning and saving tendencies of Dutch and American workers, and found striking differences across countries not only among structural variables predictive of key psychological and retirement planning constructs, but also in the robustness of the path models.
Abstract: This study explored the psychological mechanisms that underlie the retirement planning and saving tendencies of Dutch and American workers. Participants were 988 Dutch and 429 Americans, 25 to 64 years of age. Analyses were designed to (a) examine the extent to which structural variables were related to planning tendencies and (b) develop culture-specific path analysis models to identify the mechanisms that underlie perceived financial preparedness for retirement. Findings revealed striking differences across countries not only among structural variables predictive of key psychological and retirement planning constructs, but also in the robustness of the path models. These findings suggest policy analysts should take into account both individual and cultural differences in the psychological predispositions of workers when considering pension reforms that stress individual responsibility for planning and saving.
TL;DR: This paper examined the antecedent factors affecting the quality of life of African Americans and proposed a theoretical model that identifies the effects of culture-specific coping and spiritual well-being as predictors of quality-of-life.
Abstract: This study examines the antecedent factors affecting the quality of life of African Americans. A theoretical model is proposed that identifies the effects of culture-specific coping and spiritual well-being as predictors of quality of life. A sample of 281 African Americans was administered a battery of questionnaires that examined the constructs of interest. The theoretical model was tested within a structural equation—modeling framework to identify both direct and indirect effects. Results indicate overall model fit, with both culture-specific coping and spiritual well-being as significant predictors of quality of life. Spiritual well-being partially mediated the effects of culture-specific coping on quality of life. The article concludes with a discussion of the study's findings in relation to quality of life issues for African Americans.
TL;DR: The authors showed that individuals with expert knowledge in the culture spontaneously make inferences about the culture's moral values, producing a Stroop-like effect, and that American-Chinese bicultural individuals can switch between correspondent cultural inferences from American and Chinese cultural cues numerous times within one experimental session.
Abstract: Results from two groups of biculturals (Hong Kong undergraduates, Chinese Americans) and a group of European Americans in two studies showed that in the presence of applicable cues of a culture, individuals with expert knowledge in the culture spontaneously make inferences about the culture's moral values, producing a Stroop-like effect. Although both biculturals and European Americans made spontaneous cultural inferences from American cultural cues, only biculturals made spontaneous inferences from Chinese cultural cues. Moreover, American-Chinese bicultural individuals can switch between correspondent cultural inferences from American and Chinese cultural cues numerous times within one experimental session. Implications on cultural adaptation and cultural competence are discussed.
TL;DR: The results confirm that participants with an interdependent cultural model respond more extremely on the scales, but the expected lower intracultural variation in this group was confirmed only partially.
Abstract: Intracultural variation and response behavior are understood as integral parts of cultural models of parenting that provide independent information. German, Euro-American, and Greek middle-class women representing the independent cultural model; Cameroonian Nso and Gujarati farming women representing the interdependent cultural model; and urban Indian, Chinese, Mexican, and Costa Rican women representing an autonomous-related model were recruited. The results confirm that participants with an interdependent cultural model respond more extremely on the scales, but the expected lower intracultural variation in this group was confirmed only partially.
TL;DR: This article examined the cultural origins of sexism and how it is enacted within cultures and found that the harmonious tenor of Taiwanese collectivism and the competitive individualism of American culture are hypothesized to afford benevolent sexism and hostile sexism, respectively.
Abstract: This research examines the cultural origins of sexism and how it is enacted within cultures. The harmonious tenor of Taiwanese collectivism and the competitive individualism of American culture are hypothesized to afford benevolent sexism and hostile sexism, respectively. Whereas hostile sexism was expected to affect Americans' bias in favor of men more than benevolent sexism, benevolent sexism should affect Taiwanese bias favoring men more than hostile sexism. Deferential family norms and support for hierarchical intergroup relationships (social dominance orientation) were hypothesized to increase support of sexism in both cultures. Two studies within each culture confirmed the aforementioned hypotheses. The cultural roots of legitimizing ideologies and the cultural origins of different forms of sexism are discussed.
TL;DR: The authors found that Hong Kong Chinese will recognize the global culture's superiority in status attributes (e.g., competence, achievement), while at the same time maintaining positive evaluations of Chinese culture on solidarity attributes (traditional moral values).
Abstract: Taking a social identity perspective, the authors predict that when responding to the dominating influence of the global culture brought in by the Western economic powers, Hong Kong Chinese will recognize the global culture's superiority in status attributes (e.g., competence, achievement), while at the same time maintaining positive evaluations of Chinese culture on solidarity attributes (traditional moral values). The authors test this hypothesis by examining the Chinese and Western exemplary persons listed spontaneously by Hong Kong Chinese undergraduates and the kind of values carried by these exemplary persons. In three studies, participants associate traditional Chinese exemplary persons with both solidarity and status values and traditional Western exemplary persons with status values only. Additionally, participants also associate contemporary Western exemplary persons with Western rights-based moral values, suggesting that contemporary Western exemplary persons could be important drivers of chang...
TL;DR: In this article, the authors examined union formation preferences of Turkish, Moroccan, and Dutch adolescents and showed how and to what extent parents are of influence on these preferences, and they found that both parental characteristics and characteristics of the parent-child relationship are of major influence for adolescents' union formation preference.
Abstract: This study first examines union formation preferences of Turkish, Moroccan, and Dutch adolescents. Second, the study shows how and to what extent parents are of influence on these preferences. Hypotheses are derived from cross-cultural psychology and theories on intergenerational transmission. Self-reported data of approximately 19,000 Dutch, 460 Turkish, and 400 Moroccan adolescents 11 to 23 years of age are used to test the hypotheses. Youth with a Turkish and Moroccan background, particularly those with a strong ethnic identification, more often prefer marriage than Dutch youth. Unmarried cohabitation (before marriage) is most popular among Dutch adolescents, but substantial proportions of immigrant youth also prefer this type of relationship. In addition, both parental characteristics and characteristics of the parent—child relationship are of major influence for adolescents' union formation preferences. The process of intergenerational transmission is found to be largely comparable among all groups.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors compared the child-rearing values of mothers and fathers of 4 to 6-year-old children in Estonia and Finland and found that Finnish parents tend to stress benevolence, hedonism, and bad habits rather than conformity and achievement.
Abstract: This study compares the child-rearing values of mothers and fathers of 4 to 6-year-old children in Estonia and Finland. All samples assign the most value to characteristics related to benevolence, self-direction, and being trustworthy. Valuing smartness and politeness is specific to the Estonian culture, and valuing hedonism is specific to the Finnish culture. Compared with Estonian parents, Finnish parents tend to stress benevolence, hedonism, and bad habits rather than conformity and achievement; their child-rearing values are more homogeneous; and the values held by a mother and father from the same family reveal more similarities. Estonian mothers attach more importance to benevolence and conformity than do Estonian fathers. Child-rearing values do not differ according to the child's gender. The findings suggest that differences in child-rearing values related to parental gender depend on the cultural context.
TL;DR: This article analyzed how autonomy and relatedness manifest in mothers' accounts of their ethnotheories regarding child care and found that mothers from independent and autonomous-relational samples use more I statements and direct references to themselves.
Abstract: This study analyzes how autonomy and relatedness manifest in mothers' accounts of their ethnotheories regarding child care. Mothers came from two independent samples from urban middle-class in Germany and California, two autonomous-relational samples from urban middle-class in India and Cameroon, and one interdependent sample from rural Cameroon. Transcriptions of picture-based interviews are coded for discourse elements indicative of both orientations. Mothers from independent and autonomous-relational samples use more I statements and direct references to themselves. Mothers from interdependent and autonomous-relational samples contextualize and refer to authorities more often. Generally, differences between the urban and rural samples in terms of discourse elements related to autonomy are less pronounced than differences in associated socialization goals. This indicates that consciously held beliefs are more sensitive to changes in the families' sociocultural environment than their discourse.
TL;DR: In this article, a total of 39 mothers from the United States and 32 mothers from Japan were interviewed to assess beliefs about attachment and amae (expectations of indulgence and interdependence).
Abstract: Attachment investigators provide evidence that security takes similar forms and has similar antecedents and consequences in diverse cultures. However, there is also evidence that security differs across culture, and the nature of the similarities and differences are not well understood. A total of 39 mothers from the United States and 32 mothers from Japan were interviewed to assess beliefs about attachment and amae (expectations of indulgence and interdependence). Cultural similarities involved the manifestation of security and insecurity, the role of maternal responsiveness, and the link between security and desirable child characteristics. Cultural differences also emerged: There is more exploration associated with security and more anger and aggression associated with insecurity in the United States, and U.S. mothers link security with a much greater range of positive attributes than do Japanese mothers, who more often link security with accommodative behaviors. In mildly stressful situations, Japanes...
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors compiled prototypes of the good person from laypersons' free-listings in seven cultures and used experts' classifications to content-analyze and compare the prototypes.
Abstract: “Good” is a fundamental concept present in all cultures, and experts in values and positive psychology have mapped good's many aspects in human beings. Which aspects do laypersons typically access and consider as they make everyday judgments of goodness? Does the answer vary with culture? To address these questions, the authors compiled prototypes of the good person from laypersons' free-listings in seven cultures and used experts' classifications to content-analyze and compare the prototypes. Benevolence, conformity, and traditionalism dominated the features that laypersons frequently attributed to good people. Other features—competence in particular—varied widely in their accessibility across cultures. These findings depart from those obtained in research using expert-designed self-report inventories, highlighting the need to consider everyday accessibility when comparing cultures' definitions of the good person.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors compared pretend play of Brazilian children (41 girls and 35 boys, 4 to 6 years old) of five different cultural groups: (a) Indians, (b) seashore, (c) low socioeconomic status (SES) urban, (d) high SES urban, and (e) mixed sES urban).
Abstract: This study compared pretend play of Brazilian children (41 girls and 35 boys, 4 to 6 years old) of five different cultural groups: (a) Indians, (b) seashore, (c) low socioeconomic status (SES) urban, (d) high SES urban, and (e) mixed SES urban. This cross-cultural investigation was based in naturalistic observation and conducted within a methodological framework that considered the content and the meaning of symbolic transformation and its structure. Although pretend play occurred in all groups, high and mixed SES urban children engaged in more pretending than the others. In accordance with the theoretical claim that make believe is a universal phenomenon, the differences among cultural groups were expressed more in the content than in the structure of pretend play.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors investigated the cross-cultural differences in conceptualizations of forgiveness, using a modified version of the Conceptualizations of Forgiveness Scale, and found that the Congolese more than the French conceived forgiveness as aimed at reconciling with the offender and extensible to people outside the offended dyad.
Abstract: The present study investigates the cross-cultural differences in conceptualizations of forgiveness, using a modified version of the Conceptualizations of Forgiveness Scale. In the Congolese (collectivistic) culture, forgiveness was expected to be mainly conceived as an “interpersonal” construct, and in the French (individualistic) culture as an “intrapersonal” process. The findings supported these views. The Congolese more than the French conceived forgiveness as aimed at reconciling with the offender and extensible to people outside the offended—offender dyad.
TL;DR: In this article, the gender specificity of the relation between acculturation and problem behavior in Moroccan immigrant adolescents in the Netherlands was examined, and the authors emphasized that gender and parent-child conflict should be considered when attempting to understand the complex relation between the acculture and problem behaviour.
Abstract: The gender specificity of the relation between acculturation and problem behavior in Moroccan immigrant adolescents in the Netherlands was examined. Three previously identified classes of adolescents with similar patterns of acculturation were used: an integrated, separated, and ambivalent class. Girls with an ambivalent acculturation pattern showed more problems than the other girls on parent- and adolescent-reported internalizing and externalizing behavior. For boys, no effects of acculturation on problem behavior were found. The high number of conflicts between parents and their ambivalently acculturated daughters partly explained the relation between acculturation and problem behavior. The findings emphasized that gender and parent—child conflict should be considered when attempting to understand the complex relation between acculturation and problem behavior.
TL;DR: In a country-level study, collective income, household income, and economic growth were conceptualized as moderators of the climate-culture link because money is primarily used to satisfy homeostatic needs for thermal comfort, nutrition, and health.
Abstract: The circumstances under which societies adapt their cultural values to cold, temperate, and hot climates include the availability of money to cope with climate. In a country-level study, collective income, household income, and economic growth were conceptualized as moderators of the climate-culture link because money is primarily used to satisfy homeostatic needs for thermal comfort, nutrition, and health. The results demonstrate that members of societies in more-demanding climates endorse survival values at the expense of self-expression values to the extent that they are poorer (n= 74 nations), that household incomes in these lower-income societies are lower (n = 66 nations), and that they face more economic recession (n = 38 nations). In addition to theoretical implications, the findings have practical implications for the cultural consequences of global warming and the effectiveness of financing for human development.
TL;DR: In this paper, a model of interpersonal, intercultural conflict was proposed and tested using data from graduate students representing approximately 50 countries and found that conflict strongly predicts poor work-related and sociocultural adaptation, and these negative effects occur over and above the baseline effects of work stress.
Abstract: Although researchers have noted that interactions among people from different cultural backgrounds can result in interpersonal conflict, little is known about the nature of this conflict and its effects on the individuals involved. The current study attempts to address this gap in the literature. It conceptualizes interpersonal, intercultural conflict as a stressor and proposes and tests a model of conflict experiences, using data from graduate students representing approximately 50 countries. Results of path analyses of the model indicate that although cultural distance does not predict interpersonal, intercultural conflict, conflict strongly predicts poor work-related and sociocultural adaptation, and these negative effects occur over and above the baseline effects of work stress. Work-related and sociocultural adaptation in turn predicts poor psychological adaptation, which mediates the negative effects on health-related adaptation.
TL;DR: This article investigated differences in the reported use of reward allocation principles based on equity, equality, and need in work organizations in Germany, United Kingdom, New Zealand, Australia, United States, and Brazil.
Abstract: Differences in the reported use of reward allocation principles based on equity, equality, and need in work organizations in Germany, United Kingdom, New Zealand, the United States, and Brazil are investigated. Organization-level and nation-level predictors are used to explain reported differences. Organizational, macroeconomic, and Schwartz's nation-level value indices are all found to be significant predictors. Reliance on equity is predicted by organization-level variables and high nation-level mastery. Reliance on equality is only influenced by organization-level variables. Reliance on need is predicted by the unemployment rate and high nation-level embeddedness. The results indicate that reward allocation studies that focus solely on individual-level factors will fail to detect important sources of variance. The need to consider multiple levels of explanation in cross-cultural research is discussed.
TL;DR: Ng et al. as discussed by the authors surveyed the cultural values of select East Asian and Pacific Island nations and found that richer nations tended to endorse Dionysian, Autonomy, and Egalitarianism, whereas poorer nations tended toward Submission, Embeddedness, and Hierarchy values.
Abstract: In a 1982 publication, Ng et al. surveyed the cultural values of select East Asian and Pacific Island nations. In 2002, this study repeated their work, using the same sampling frame, questionnaire, and collaborators, where possible. The authors also reclassified the 1982 and 2002 survey results using Schwartz's cultural-level value dimensions. Submission versus Dionysian values that differentiated the nations in 1982 continued to do so in 2002. Furthermore, nations that endorsed Mastery (and rejected Harmony) in 1982 experienced greater subsequent economic growth than did the other countries. Moreover, economic development in 1982 predicted ensuing changes in Submission versus Dionysian and Hierarchy versus Egalitarianism values. Richer nations tended to endorse Dionysian, Autonomy, and Egalitarianism, whereas poorer nations tended toward Submission, Embeddedness, and Hierarchy values. Overall, the results support both economic and cultural determinism and imply two opposing directions of cultural change.
TL;DR: Perceptions of the “typical American” from 49 cultures around the world show a strong agreement between in-group and out-group ratings on the American profile (assertive, open-minded, but antagonistic), but Americans had a somewhat less desirable view of Americans.
Abstract: This study examines perceptions of the “typical American” from 49 cultures around the world. Contrary to the ethnocentric bias hypothesis, a strong agreement was found between in-group and out-group ratings on the American profile (assertive, open-minded, but antagonistic). In fact, Americans had a somewhat less desirable view of Americans than did others. Within cultures, in-group ratings were not systematically more favorable than out-group ratings. The Iraq invasion had a slight negative effect on perceptions of the typical American, but people around the world seem to draw a clear distinction between U.S. foreign policy and the character of the American people. National character stereotypes appear to have a variety of sources and to be perpetuated by both cognitive mechanisms and sociocultural forces.
TL;DR: The authors introduced the concept of status differentiation along with a description of the development and initial validation of an individual-difference measure called the status differentiation scale (SDS), followed by reports of cross-cultural differences on the SDS in three countries.
Abstract: The concept of status differentiation is introduced along with a description of the development and initial validation of an individual-difference measure called the Status Differentiation Scale (SDS). This is followed by reports of cross-cultural differences on the SDS in three countries. Study 1 used American participants and established the scoring procedure for the SDS, its internal reliability and structural relationships, and construct validity. Study 2 used American and Japanese participants and demonstrated its internal reliability, structural relationships, and construct validity with a measure of allocentrism in both countries and predictable country differences that could not be accounted for by collectivism. Study 3 used American and South Korean participants and documented its internal reliability, structural relationships, and construct validity with a measure of values in both countries and predictable country differences that could not be accounted for by values. The concept of status diff...