Showing papers on "Amplifier published in 2014"

Quantum metrology with parametric amplifier-based photon correlation interferometers

Abstract: Interferometers play a key role in precision measurements and metrology. Here, the authors demonstrate a new type of interferometer that replaces the standard beam splitter elements with parametric amplifiers, which provides enhanced performance compared with a Mach–Zehnder interferometer.

Widely Linear Digital Self-Interference Cancellation in Direct-Conversion Full-Duplex Transceiver

Abstract: This paper addresses the modeling and cancellation of self-interference in full-duplex direct-conversion radio transceivers, operating under practical imperfect radio frequency (RF) components. First, detailed self-interference signal modeling is carried out, taking into account the most important RF imperfections, namely, transmitter power amplifier nonlinear distortion as well as transmitter and receiver IQ mixer amplitude and phase imbalances. The analysis shows that after realistic antenna isolation and RF cancellation, the dominant self-interference waveform at the receiver digital baseband can be modeled through a widely linear transformation of the original transmit data, opposed to classical purely linear models. Such widely linear self-interference waveform is physically stemming from the transmitter and receiver IQ imaging and cannot be efficiently suppressed by classical linear digital cancellation. Motivated by this, novel widely linear digital self-interference cancellation processing is then proposed and formulated, combined with efficient parameter estimation methods. Extensive simulation results demonstrate that the proposed widely linear cancellation processing clearly outperforms the existing linear solutions, hence enabling the use of practical low-cost RF front ends utilizing IQ mixing in full-duplex transceivers.

Full-Duplex Transceiver System Calculations: Analysis of ADC and Linearity Challenges

Abstract: Despite the intensive recent research on wireless single-channel full-duplex communications, relatively little is known about the transceiver chain nonidealities of full-duplex devices. In this paper, the effect of nonlinear distortion occurring in the transmitter power amplifier (PA) and the receiver chain is analyzed, beside the dynamic range requirements of analog-to-digital converters (ADCs). This is done with detailed system calculations, which combine the properties of the individual electronics components to jointly model the complete transceiver chain, including self-interference cancellation. They also quantify the decrease in the dynamic range for the signal of interest caused by self-interference at the analog-to-digital interface. Using these system calculations, we provide comprehensive numerical results for typical transceiver parameters. The analytical results are also confirmed with full waveform simulations. We observe that the nonlinear distortion produced by the transmitter PA is a significant issue in a full-duplex transceiver and, when using cheaper and less linear components, also the receiver chain nonlinearities become considerable. It is also shown that, with digitally intensive self-interference cancellation, the quantization noise of the ADCs is another significant problem.

A CMOS 210-GHz Fundamental Transceiver With OOK Modulation

Abstract: This paper presents a 210-GHz transceiver with OOK modulation in a 32-nm SOI CMOS process (fT/fmax= 250/320 GHz). The transmitter (TX) employs a 2 × 2 spatial combining array consisting of a double-stacked cross-coupled voltage controlled oscillator (VCO) at 210 GHz with an on-off-keying (OOK) modulator, a power amplifier (PA) driver, a novel balun-based differential power distribution network, four PAs, and an on-chip 2 × 2 dipole antenna array. The noncoherent receiver (RX) utilizes a direct detection architecture consisting of an on-chip antenna, a low-noise amplifier (LNA), and a power detector. The VCO generates measured -13.5-dBm output power, and the PA shows a measured 15-dB gain and 4.6-dBm Psat. The LNA exhibits a measured in-band gain of 18 dB and minimum in-band noise figure (NF) of 11 dB. The TX achieves an EIRP of 5.13 dBm at 10 dB back-off from saturated power. It achieves an estimated EIRP of 15.2 dBm when the PAs are fully driven. This is the first demonstration of a fundamental frequency CMOS transceiver at the 200-GHz frequency range.

Resonant phase matching of Josephson junction traveling wave parametric amplifiers.

Abstract: We propose a technique to overcome phase mismatch in Josephson-junction traveling wave parametric amplifiers in order to achieve high gain over a broad bandwidth. Using ``resonant phase matching,'' we design a compact superconducting device consisting of a transmission line with subwavelength resonant inclusions that simultaneously achieves a gain of 20 dB, an instantaneous bandwidth of 3 GHz, and a saturation power of $\ensuremath{-}98\text{ }\text{ }\mathrm{dBm}$. Such an amplifier is well suited to cryogenic broadband microwave measurements such as the multiplexed readout of quantum coherent circuits based on superconducting, semiconducting, or nanomechanical elements, as well as traditional astronomical detectors.

Apparatus and method for matching harmonics

Abstract: An apparatus of a power amplifier is provided. The apparatus includes an input boosting circuit configured to match a second harmonic input signal using a harmonic control circuit of an input stage to maximize an efficiency and an output power, a die cell configured to receive and amplify an output signal of the input boosting circuit, and an output boosting circuit configured to receive an output signal of the die cell and to match a second harmonic output signal of the output signal of the die cell using a harmonic control circuit of an output stage to maximize the efficiency and the output power.

Color‐Selective and CMOS‐Compatible Photodetection Based on Aluminum Plasmonics

Abstract: A color-selective, band-engineered photodetector is demonstrated. The device uses two Schottky junctions to accumulate charge in an energy well, which results in photocurrent gain and a plasmonic aluminum grating for photocurrent enhancement and red-green-blue color selectivity. This work provides a more intelligent way to design imaging sensors by integrating amplifiers and color filters directly into pixels.

Green Communications: Digital Predistortion for Wideband RF Power Amplifiers

Abstract: The RF PA, as one of the most essential components in any wireless system, suffers from inherent nonlinearities. The output of a PA must comply with the linearity requirement specified by the standards. Due to its satisfactory linearization capability, DPD has been widely accepted as one of the fundamental units in modern and future wideband wireless systems. With the help of this flexible digital technology, the inherent linearity problem of PAs operating in the saturation region can be significantly improved, which enables us, the wireless engineers, to create more suitable RF transceiver architectures to provide wireless access with better user experience (linearity perspective) and less power waste (power efficiency perspective). This moves us one more step towards the ultimate green communications. In this article, we discussed the DPD techniques in the context of linearizing nonlinear RF PAs. As the computing-horsepower and the transistor-density of digital IC increases while the cost per transistor decreases, the concept that uses digital enhancement techniques to eliminate active analog imperfects will gain more attention from both industry and academia.

A 56.4-to-63.4 GHz Multi-Rate All-Digital Fractional-N PLL for FMCW Radar Applications in 65 nm CMOS

Abstract: A mm-wave digital transmitter based on a 60 GHz all-digital phase-locked loop (ADPLL) with wideband frequency modulation (FM) for FMCW radar applications is proposed. The fractional-N ADPLL employs a high-resolution 60 GHz digitally-controlled oscillator (DCO) and is capable of multi-rate two-point FM. It achieves a measured rms jitter of 590.2 fs, while the loop settles within 3 μs. The measured reference spur is only -74 dBc, the fractional spurs are below -62 dBc, with no other significant spurs. A closed-loop DCO gain linearization scheme realizes a GHz-level triangular chirp across multiple DCO tuning banks with a measured frequency error (i.e., nonlinearity) in the FMCW ramp of only 117 kHz rms for a 62 GHz carrier with 1.22 GHz bandwidth. The synthesizer is transformer-coupled to a 3-stage neutralized power amplifier (PA) that delivers +5 dBm to a 50 Ω load. Implemented in 65 nm CMOS, the transmitter prototype (including PA) consumes 89 mW from a 1.2 V supply.

Low-Power, Noise Insensitive Communication Channel using Logarithmic Detector Amplifier (LDA) Demodulator

Abstract: A method is provided for communicating signals at a low power level in an electromagnetic interference (EMI) environment A first device transmits a modulated signal having a first carrier frequency, including the encoded information via a hardwire transmission medium In one aspect, the power level of the modulated signal can be adjusted to minimize power consumption or reduce the generation of EMI The modulated signal may be in one of the following formats: frequency modulation (FM) or phase modulation (PM) to name a few examples A second device including a logarithmic detector amplifier (LDA) demodulator circuit receives the signal, which may be mixed with EMI The LDA demodulator circuit amplifies the modulated signal, without amplifying the EMI, to supply a demodulated baseband signal, which may be an n-ary digital signal, or an audio signal A low-power, noise insensitive communication channel is also provided

High-accuracy coherent optical frequency transfer over a doubled 642-km fiber link

Abstract: To significantly improve the frequency references used in radio-astronomy and the precision measurements in atomic physics, we provide frequency dissemination through a 642-km coherent optical fiber link. On the frequency transfer, we obtained a frequency instability of $$3\times 10^{-19}$$ at 1,000 s in terms of Allan deviation on a 5-mHz measurement bandwidth, and an accuracy of $$5\times 10^{-19}$$ . The ultimate link performance has been evaluated by doubling the link to 1,284 km, demonstrating a new characterization technique based on the double round trip on a single fiber. This method is an alternative to previously demonstrated techniques for link characterization. In particular, the use of a single fiber may be beneficial to long hauls realizations in view of a continental fiber network for frequency and time metrology, as it avoids the doubling of the amplifiers, with a subsequent reduction in costs and maintenance. A detailed analysis of the results is presented, regarding the phase noise, the cycle-slips detection and removal and the instability evaluation. The observed noise power spectrum is seldom found in the literature; hence, the expression of the Allan deviation is theoretically derived and the results confirm the expectations.

High-Frequency PWM Buck Converters Using GaN-on-SiC HEMTs

Abstract: GaN high electron mobility transistors (HEMTs) are well suited for high-frequency operation due to their lower on resistance and device capacitance compared with traditional silicon devices. When grown on silicon carbide, GaN HEMTs can also achieve very high power density due to the enhanced power handling capabilities of the substrate. As a result, GaN-on-SiC HEMTs are increasingly popular in radio-frequency power amplifiers, and applications as switches in high-frequency power electronics are of high interest. This paper explores the use of GaN-on-SiC HEMTs in conventional pulse-width modulated switched-mode power converters targeting switching frequencies in the tens of megahertz range. Device sizing and efficiency limits of this technology are analyzed, and design principles and guidelines are given to exploit the capabilities of the devices. The results are presented for discrete-device and integrated implementations of a synchronous Buck converter, providing more than 10-W output power supplied from up to 40 V with efficiencies greater than 95% when operated at 10 MHz, and greater than 90% at switching frequencies up to 40 MHz. As a practical application of this technology, the converter is used to accurately track a 3-MHz bandwidth communication envelope signal with 92% efficiency.

MoS2 transistors operating at gigahertz frequencies.

Abstract: The presence of a direct band gap 1−4 and an ultrathin form factor 5 has caused a considerable interest in two-dimensional (2D) semiconductors from the transition metal dichalcogenides (TMD) family with molybdenum disulfide (MoS2) being the most studied representative of this family of materials. While diverse electronic elements, 6,7 logic circuits, 8,9 and optoelectronic devices 12,13 have been demonstrated using ultrathin MoS2, very little is known about their performance at high frequencies where commercial devices are expected to function. Here, we report on top-gated MoS2 transistors operating in the gigahertz range of frequencies. Our devices show cutoff frequencies reaching 6 GHz. The presence of a band gap also gives rise to current saturation, 10 allowing power and voltage gain, all in the gigahertz range. This shows that MoS2 could be an interesting material for realizing high-speed amplifiers and logic circuits with device scaling expected to result in further improvement of performance. Our work represents the first step in the realization of high-frequency analog and digital circuits based on 2D semiconductors.

Controlling the dynamic range of a Josephson parametric amplifier

Abstract: One of the central challenges in the development of parametric amplifiers is the control of the dynamic range relative to its gain and bandwidth, which typically limits quantum limited amplification to signals which contain only a few photons per inverse bandwidth. Here, we discuss the control of the dynamic range of Josephson parametric amplifiers by using Josephson junction arrays. We discuss gain, bandwidth, noise, and dynamic range properties of both a transmission line and a lumped element based parametric amplifier. Based on these investigations we derive useful design criteria, which may find broad application in the development of practical parametric amplifiers.

A 60-dB Gain OTA Operating at 0.25-V Power Supply in 130-nm Digital CMOS Process

Abstract: This paper presents a 60-dB gain bulk-driven Miller OTA operating at 0.25-V power supply in the 130-nm digital CMOS process. The amplifier operates in the weak-inversion region with input bulk-driven differential pair sporting positive feedback source degeneration for transconductance enhancement. In addition, the distributed layout configuration is used for all the transistors to mitigate the effect of halo implants for higher output impedance. Combining these two approaches, we experimentally demonstrate a high gain of over 60-dB with just 18-nW power consumption from 0.25-V power supply. The use of enhanced bulk-driven differential pair and distributed layout can help overcome some of the constraints imposed by nanometer CMOS process for high performance analog circuits in weak inversion region.

Single-chip silicon photonics 100-Gb/s coherent transceiver

Abstract: We demonstrate a monolithic silicon photonics integrated circuit that contains all the optics for a 100-Gb/s coherent transceiver, except the laser. Co-packaged with linear drivers and transimpedance amplifiers, the 27 x 35.5 mm2 module consumes only 4.5W.

A 550 Mbit/s real-time visible light communication system based on phosphorescent white light LED for practical high-speed low-complexity application

Abstract: In this paper, we first experimentally demonstrate a 550 Mbit/s real-time visible light communication (VLC) system based on nonreturn-to-zero on-off keying (NRZ-OOK) modulation of a commercial phosphorescent white light LED. The 3-dB modulation bandwidth of such devices is only a few megahertz. We proposed an analog pre-emphasis circuit based on NPN transistors and an active post-equalization circuit based on an amplifier to enhance the 3-dB bandwidth of VLC link. Utilizing our proposed pre-emphasis and post-equalization circuits, the 3-dB bandwidth of VLC link could be extended from 3 to 233 MHz with blue-filter, to the best of our knowledge, which is the highest ever achieved in VLC systems reported. The achieved data rate was 550 Mbit/s at the distance of 60 cm and the resultant bit-error-ratio (BER) was 2.6 × 10(-9). When the VLC link operated at 160 cm, the data rate was 480 Mbit/s with 2.3 × 10(-7) of BER. Our proposed VLC system is a good solution for high-speed low-complexity application.

Josephson directional amplifier for quantum measurement of superconducting circuits.

Abstract: We realize a microwave quantum-limited amplifier that is directional and can therefore function without the front circulator needed in many quantum measurements. The amplification takes place in only one direction between the input and output ports. Directionality is achieved by multipump parametric amplification combined with wave interference. We have verified the device noise performances by using it to read out a superconducting qubit and observed quantum jumps. With an improved version of this device, the qubit and preamplifer could be integrated on the same chip.

A Superconducting-Nanowire 3-Terminal Electronic Device

Abstract: In existing superconducting electronic systems, Josephson junctions play a central role in processing and transmitting small-amplitude electrical signals However, Josephson-junction-based devices have a number of limitations including: (1) sensitivity to magnetic fields, (2) limited gain, (3) inability to drive large impedances, and (4) difficulty in controlling the junction critical current (which depends sensitively on sub-Angstrom-scale thickness variation of the tunneling barrier) Here we present a nanowire-based superconducting electronic device, which we call the nanocryotron (nTron), that does not rely on Josephson junctions and can be patterned from a single thin film of superconducting material with conventional electron-beam lithography The nTron is a 3-terminal, T-shaped planar device with a gain of ~20 that is capable of driving impedances of more than 100 k{\Omega}, and operates in typical ambient magnetic fields at temperatures of 42K The device uses a localized, Joule-heated hotspot formed in the gate to modulate current flow in a perpendicular superconducting channel We have characterized the nTron, matched it to a theoretical framework, and applied it both as a digital logic element in a half-adder circuit, and as a digital amplifier for superconducting nanowire single-photon detectors pulses The nTron has immediate applications in classical and quantum communications, photon sensing and astronomy, and its performance characteristics make it compatible with existing superconducting technologies Furthermore, because the hotspot effect occurs in all known superconductors, we expect the design to be extensible to other materials, providing a path to digital logic, switching, and amplification in high-temperature superconductors

High power mid-infrared supercontinuum generation in a single-mode ZBLAN fiber with up to 21.8 W average output power

Abstract: We report high power mid-infrared (mid-IR) supercontinuum (SC) generation in a single-mode ZBLAN (ZrF4-BaF2-LaF3-AlF3-NaF) fiber with up to 21.8 W average output power from 1.9 to beyond 3.8 μm pumped by amplified picosecond pulses from a single-mode thulium-doped fiber (TDF) master oscillator power amplifier (MOPA). The optical-optical conversion efficiency from the 793 nm pump laser of the last stage thulium-doped fiber amplifier (TDFA) to mid-IR SC output is 17%. It is, to the best of our knowledge, the highest average power mid-IR SC generation from a ZBLAN fiber to date.

Gap Waveguide PMC Packaging for Improved Isolation of Circuit Components in High-Frequency Microwave Modules

Abstract: In this paper, perfect magnetic conductor (PMC)-based packaging technique was used to improve the isolation performance among various microwave circuit components such as high-gain amplifier chains. In this approach, a periodic structure (such as metal pin rows) together with the ground plane of the substrate created a stopband for unwanted parallel plate or cavity modes as well as substrate modes, and thereby suppressed the problems of circuit resonances and related package phenomena. This paper describes two Ka-band amplifier chains that were tested with this new packaging technique. Firstly, a single amplifier chain was tested for maximum stable gain operation, and it was found that the stable gain of was achieved, whereas traditional metal wall package with RF absorber offered stable gain of 40 dB, thus showing significant isolation improvement. Secondly, two high-gain amplifier chains were placed side by side and their mutual isolation was tested. With the proposed gap waveguide packaging, a minimum isolation of 78 dB was achieved, whereas a complete metal shield provided a minimum isolation of only 64 dB over the band of interest.

Organo-erbium systems for optical amplification at telecommunications wavelengths.

Abstract: Modern telecommunications rely on the transmission and manipulation of optical signals. Optical amplification plays a vital part in this technology, as all components in a real telecommunications system produce some loss. The two main issues with present amplifiers, which rely on erbium ions in a glass matrix, are the difficulty in integration onto a single substrate and the need of high pump power densities to produce gain. Here we show a potential organic optical amplifier material that demonstrates population inversion when pumped from above using low-power visible light. This system is integrated into an organic light-emitting diode demonstrating that electrical pumping can be achieved. This opens the possibility of direct electrically driven optical amplifiers and optical circuits. Our results provide an alternative approach to producing low-cost integrated optics that is compatible with existing silicon photonics and a different route to an effective integrated optics technology.

Demonstration of a Multikilowatt, Solenoidally Focused Sheet Beam Amplifier at 94 GHz

Abstract: A technological breakthrough is embodied in the successful demonstration of an extended interaction klystron (EIK) amplifier, which has produced over 7.5 kW of peak output power at W-band (94 GHz). An efficiency of ${\sim}{17\%}$ has been achieved with a depressed collector. The EIK is driven by a 20-kV, 4-A sheet beam in a permanent magnet solenoid, with 99% beam current transmission from gun to collector. Key features that contribute to the success of this device are: 1) tight beam focusing and correspondingly narrow beam tunnel, which are made possible by the solenoidal focusing and which provide high interaction impedance and high gain per unit length and 2) the incorporation of design elements to stabilize the inherently over-moded circuit. Measured performance agrees well with 3-D particle-in-cell simulations.

A superconducting-nanowire three-terminal electrothermal device.

Abstract: Superconducting electronics based on Josephson junctions are used to sense and process electronic signals with minimal loss; however, they are ultrasensitive to magnetic fields, limited in their amplification capabilities, and difficult to manufacture. We have developed a 3-terminal, nanowire-based superconducting electrothermal device which has no Josephson junctions. This device, which we call the nanocryotron, can be patterned from a single thin film of superconducting material with conventional electron-beam lithography. The nanocryotron has a demonstrated gain of >20, can drive impedances of 100 kΩ, and operates in typical ambient magnetic fields. We have additionally applied it both as a digital logic element in a half-adder circuit, and as a digital amplifier for superconducting nanowire single-photon detectors pulses. The nanocryotron has immediate applications in classical and quantum communications, photon sensing, and astronomy, and its input characteristics are suitable for integration with ex...

A Concurrent Dual-Band Uneven Doherty Power Amplifier with Frequency-Dependent Input Power Division

Abstract: A concurrent dual-band uneven GaN Doherty power amplifier (PA) for two wide-spacing frequencies application is proposed in this paper. To avoid an early load modulation-drop caused by the soft turn-on characteristic of the peaking device, an adaptive power division is realized by a frequency-dependent uneven power divider as well as the input matching nonlinearities of the two cells in Doherty PA. Due to the adaptive power division, the proposed dual-band uneven Doherty PA achieves a power-added efficiency of 45% and 41% at the 6 dB backoff from the saturation at 850 MHz and 2330 MHz, respectively, the gain of the proposed Doherty PA is also enhanced to 19 dB and 13 dB in the dual bands. Furthermore, a more accurate two-dimensional joint digital predistortion model (2D-JDPD) is applied to linearize the PA and compensate for the in-phase and quadrature (I/Q) imbalance simultaneously. With this new model, the adjacent channel power ratio (ACPR) is improved to better than -47.1 dBc and -49.4 dBc in the lower and upper bands at an average output power of 31.75 dBm, and a drain efficiency of 26.7% is obtained at the same time.

A Closed-Form Design Technique for Ultra-Wideband Doherty Power Amplifiers

Abstract: This paper presents an innovative architecture to drastically enlarge the bandwidth of the Doherty power amplifier (DPA). The proposed topology, based on novel input/output splitting/combining networks, allows to overcome the typical bandwidth limiting factors of the conventional DPA. A complete and rigorous theoretical investigation of the developed architecture is presented leading to a closed-form formulation suitable for a direct synthesis of ultra-wideband DPAs. The theoretical formulation is validated through the design, realization, and test of a hybrid prototype based on commercial GaN HEMT device showing a fractional bandwidth larger than 83%. From 1.05 to 2.55 GHz, experimental results with continuous-wave signals have shown efficiency levels within 83%-45% and within 58%-35% at about 42- and 36-dBm output power, respectively. The DPA has also been tested and digitally predistorted by using a 5-MHz Third Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) signal. In particular, to evaluate the ultra-wideband and the multi-mode capabilities of the prototype, f 1 = 1.2 GHz, f 2 = 1.8 GHz, and f 3 = 2.5 GHz have been selected as carrier frequencies for the 3GPP signal. Under these conditions and at 36-dBm average output power, the DPA shows 52%, 35%, and 52% efficiency and an adjacent channel power ratio always lower than -43 dBc.

Quantum-limited amplification via reservoir engineering.

Abstract: We describe a new kind of phase-preserving quantum amplifier which utilizes dissipative interactions in a parametrically coupled three-mode bosonic system. The use of dissipative interactions provides a fundamental advantage over standard cavity-based parametric amplifiers: large photon number gains are possible with quantum-limited added noise, with no limitation on the gain-bandwidth product. We show that the scheme is simple enough to be implemented both in optomechanical systems and in superconducting microwave circuits.

Ka-Band Gyrotron Traveling-Wave Tubes With the Highest Continuous-Wave and Average Power

Abstract: The results of experimental investigation of two Ka-band gyrotron traveling-wave tube (gyro-TWT) amplifiers with helically corrugated waveguides are presented. The first tube produces pulsed output power of 130-160 kW within the frequency range of 33.1-35.5 GHz and is capable of operating with a 10% duty factor. Reliability of its major components in the high average power operation regime (about 10 kW) was proven in a continuous-wave (CW) experiment. The second gyro-TWT amplifier delivered CW power of up to 7.7 kW with -3-dB bandwidth of 2.6 GHz and -1-dB bandwidth of 2.1 GHz. Effective implementation of single-stage depressed collectors (to the best of our knowledge, for the first time for gyro-TWTs) enabled the electron efficiencies as high as 36% for the pulsed tube and 33% for the CW tube to be achieved at operation at the second cyclotron harmonic.

Pseudo-random binary sequence phase modulation for narrow linewidth, kilowatt, monolithic fiber amplifiers.

Abstract: We report on pseudo random binary sequence (PRBS) phase modulation for narrow-linewidth, kilowatt-class, monolithic (all-fiber) amplifiers. Stimulated Brillouin scattering (SBS) threshold enhancement factors for different patterns of PRBS modulated fiber amplifiers were experimentally analyzed and agreed well with the theoretical predictions. We also examined seeding of the SBS process by phase modulated signals when the effective linewidth is on the same order as the Brillouin shift frequency. Here ~30% variations in SBS power thresholds were observed from small tunings of the modulation frequency. In addition, a 3 GHz PRBS modulated, 1.17 kW fiber amplifier was demonstrated. Near diffraction-limited beam quality was achieved (M2 = 1.2) with an optical pump efficiency of 83%. Overall, the improved SBS suppression and narrow linewidth achieved through PRBS modulation can have a significant impact on the beam combining of kilowatt class fiber lasers.