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The International HapMap Consortium. The International HapMap Project (Co-PI of Hong Kong Centre which responsible for 2.5% of genome)
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The article was published on 2003-01-01 and is currently open access. It has received 557 citations till now. The article focuses on the topics: International HapMap Project.read more
Citations
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Journal ArticleDOI
Filtering genetic variants and placing informative priors based on putative biological function.
Stefanie Friedrichs,Dörthe Malzahn,Elizabeth W. Pugh,Marcio Almeida,Xiao-Qing Liu,Xiao-Qing Liu,Julia N. Bailey,Julia N. Bailey +7 more
TL;DR: Diversity and usefulness of functional variant scores provided, for example, by PolyPhen2, SIFT, or RegulomeDB annotations are discussed; power improved when gene expression data for FDR-controlled informative weighting of association test p values of genes was used.
Journal ArticleDOI
Linkage disequilibrium in aquaporin 4 gene and association study with schizophrenia
TL;DR: AQP4 is not directly associated with schizophrenia in these Japanese patients and strong linkage disequilibrium (LD) and an LD block in the AQP4 gene are found.
Journal ArticleDOI
A mixed integer linear programming model to reconstruct phylogenies from single nucleotide polymorphism haplotypes under the maximum parsimony criterion
TL;DR: A recent version of the MPPEP that arises when input data consist of single nucleotide polymorphism haplotypes extracted from a population of individuals on a common genomic region is investigated, providing methodology suitable for provably optimal solution of some harder instances that resist all prior approaches.
Book ChapterDOI
Two-Level ACO for Haplotype Inference Under Pure Parsimony
TL;DR: An iterative constructive approach to Haplotype Inference based on ACO is presented and it is compared against a state-of-the-art exact method.
Journal ArticleDOI
A world in a grain of sand: human history from genetic data.
TL;DR: Genome-wide genotypes and sequences are enriching the authors' understanding of the past 50,000 years of human history and providing insights into earlier periods largely inaccessible to mitochondrial DNA and Y-chromosomal studies.
References
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Journal ArticleDOI
A haplotype map of the human genome
John W. Belmont,Andrew Boudreau,Suzanne M. Leal,Paul Hardenbol,Shiran Pasternak,David A. Wheeler,Thomas D. Willis,Fuli Yu,Huanming Yang,Gao Yang,H. B. Hu,Weitao Hu,Chaohua Li,Wei Lin,Siqi Liu,Hao Pan,Xiaoli Tang,Jian Wang,Wei Wang,Jun Yu,Bo Zhang,Qingrun Zhang,Hongbin Zhao,Jun Zhou,Rachel Barry,Brendan Blumenstiel,Amy L. Camargo,Matthew Defelice,Maura Faggart,Mary Goyette,Supriya Gupta,Jamie Moore,Huy Nguyen,Melissa Parkin,Jessica Roy,Erich Stahl,Ellen Winchester,David Altshuler,Yan Shen,Zhijian Yao,Wei Huang,Xun Chu,Yungang He,Li Jin,Yangfan Liu,Yayun Shen,Weiwei Sun,Haifeng Wang,Yi Wang,Ying Wang,Xiaoyan Xiong,Liang Xu,Mary M.Y. Waye,Stephen Kwok-Wing Tsui,Hong Xue,J. Tze Fei Wong,Launa M. Galver,Jian-Bing Fan,Sarah S. Murray,Arnold Oliphant,Mark S. Chee,Alexandre Montpetit,Fanny Chagnon,Vincent Ferretti,Martin Leboeuf,Jean François Olivier,Michael S. Phillips,Stéphanie Roumy,Clémentine Sallée,Andrei Verner,Thomas J. Hudson,Kelly A. Frazer,Dennis G. Ballinger,David R. Cox,David A. Hinds,Laura L. Stuve,Pui-Yan Kwok,Dongmei Cai,Daniel C. Koboldt,Raymond D. Miller,Ludmila Pawlikowska,Patricia Taillon-Miller,Ming Xiao,Lap-Chee Tsui,William Mak,Pak C. Sham,You-Qiang Song,Paul K.H. Tam,Yusuke Nakamura,Takahisa Kawaguchi,Takuya Kitamoto,Takashi Morizono,Atsushi Nagashima,Yozo Ohnishi,Akihiro Sekine,Toshihiro Tanaka,Panos Deloukas,Christine P. Bird,Marcos Delgado,Emmanouil T. Dermitzakis,Rhian Gwilliam,Sarah E. Hunt,Jonathan Morrison,Don Powell,Barbara E. Stranger,Pamela Whittaker,David R. Bentley,Paul I.W. de Bakker,Jeffrey C. Barrett,Ben Fry,Julian Maller,Steve McCarroll,Nick Patterson,Itsik Pe'er,Shaun Purcell,Daniel J. Richter,Pardis C. Sabeti,Richa Saxena,Stephen F. Schaffner,Patrick Varilly,Lincoln Stein,Lalitha Krishnan,Albert V. Smith,Gudmundur A. Thorisson,Aravinda Chakravarti,Peter E. Chen,David J. Cutler,Carl S. Kashuk,Shin Lin,Gonçalo R. Abecasis,Weihua Guan,Heather M. Munro,Zhaohui S. Qin,Daryl J. Thomas,Gilean McVean,Leonardo Bottolo,Susana Eyheramendy,Colin Freeman,Jonathan Marchini,Simon Myers,Chris C. A. Spencer,Matthew Stephens,Peter Donnelly,Lon R. Cardon,Geraldine M. Clarke,David M. Evans,Andrew P. Morris,Bruce S. Weir,Tatsuhiko Tsunoda,James C. Mullikin,Stephen T. Sherry,Michael Feolo,Houcan Zhang,Changqing Zeng,Hui Zhao,Ichiro Matsuda,Yoshimitsu Fukushima,Darryl Macer,Eiko Suda,Charles N. Rotimi,Clement Adebamowo,Ike Ajayi,Toyin Aniagwu,Patricia A. Marshall,Chibuzor Nkwodimmah,Charmaine D.M. Royal,Mark Leppert,Missy Dixon,Andy Peiffer,Renzong Qiu,Alastair Kent,Kazuto Kato,Norio Niikawa,Isaac F. Adewole,Bartha Maria Knoppers,Morris W. Foster,Ellen Wright Clayton,Jessica Watkin,Richard A. Gibbs,Donna M. Muzny,Lynne V. Nazareth,Erica Sodergren,George M. Weinstock,Imtiaz Yakub,Stacey Gabriel,Robert C. Onofrio,Liuda Ziaugra,Bruce W. Birren,Mark J. Daly,Richard K. Wilson,Lucinda Fulton,Jane Rogers,John Burton,Nigel P. Carter,C M Clee,Mark Griffiths,Matthew C. Jones,Kirsten McLay,Robert W. Plumb,Mark T. Ross,Sarah Sims,David Willey,Zhu Chen,Hua Han,L. Kang,Martin Godbout,John C. Wallenburg,Paul L'Archevêque,Guy Bellemare,Koji Saeki,Hongguang Wang,Daochang An,Hongbo Fu,Qing Li,Zhen Wang,Renwu Wang,Arthur L. Holden,Lisa D. Brooks,Jean E. McEwen,Christianne R. Bird,Mark S. Guyer,Patrick J. Nailer,Vivian Ota Wang,Jane Peterson,Michael Shi,Jack Spiegel,Lawrence M. Sung,Jonathan Witonsky,Lynn F. Zacharia,Francis S. Collins,Karen Kennedy,Ruth Jamieson,John Stewart +232 more
TL;DR: A public database of common variation in the human genome: more than one million single nucleotide polymorphisms for which accurate and complete genotypes have been obtained in 269 DNA samples from four populations, including ten 500-kilobase regions in which essentially all information about common DNA variation has been extracted.
Journal ArticleDOI
A second generation human haplotype map of over 3.1 million SNPs
Kelly A. Frazer,Dennis G. Ballinger,David R. Cox,David A. Hinds,Laura L. Stuve,Richard A. Gibbs,John W. Belmont,Andrew Boudreau,Paul Hardenbol,Suzanne M. Leal,Shiran Pasternak,David A. Wheeler,Thomas D. Willis,Fuli Yu,Huanming Yang,Changqing Zeng,Gao Yang,H. B. Hu,Weitao Hu,Chaohua Li,Wei Lin,Siqi Liu,Hao Pan,Xiaoli Tang,Jian Wang,Wei Wang,Jun Yu,Bo Zhang,Qingrun Zhang,Hongbin Zhao,Hui Zhao,Jun Zhou,Stacey Gabriel,Rachel Barry,Brendan Blumenstiel,Amy L. Camargo,Matthew Defelice,Maura Faggart,Mary Goyette,Supriya Gupta,Jamie Moore,Huy Nguyen,Robert C. Onofrio,Melissa Parkin,Jessica Roy,Erich Stahl,Ellen Winchester,Liuda Ziaugra,David Altshuler,Yan Shen,Zhijian Yao,Wei Huang,Xun Chu,Yungang He,Li Jin,Yangfan Liu,Yayun Shen,Weiwei Sun,Haifeng Wang,Yi Wang,Ying Wang,Xiaoyan Xiong,Liang Xu,Mary M.Y. Waye,Stephen Kwok-Wing Tsui,Hong Xue,J. Tze Fei Wong,Luana Galver,Jian-Bing Fan,Kevin L. Gunderson,Sarah S. Murray,Arnold Oliphant,Mark S. Chee,Alexandre Montpetit,Fanny Chagnon,Vincent Ferretti,Martin Leboeuf,Jean François Olivier,Michael S. Phillips,Stéphanie Roumy,Clémentine Sallée,Andrei Verner,Thomas J. Hudson,Pui-Yan Kwok,Dongmei Cai,Daniel C. Koboldt,Raymond D. Miller,Ludmila Pawlikowska,Patricia Taillon-Miller,Ming Xiao,Lap-Chee Tsui,William Mak,Qiang Song You,Paul K.H. Tam,Yusuke Nakamura,Takahisa Kawaguchi,Takuya Kitamoto,Takashi Morizono,Atsushi Nagashima,Yozo Ohnishi,Akihiro Sekine,Toshihiro Tanaka,Tatsuhiko Tsunoda,Panos Deloukas,Christine P. Bird,Marcos Delgado,Emmanouil T. Dermitzakis,Rhian Gwilliam,Sarah E. Hunt,Jonathan J. Morrison,Don Powell,Barbara E. Stranger,Pamela Whittaker,David R. Bentley,Mark J. Daly,Paul I.W. de Bakker,Jeffrey C. Barrett,Yves Chretien,Julian Maller,Steve McCarroll,Nick Patterson,Itsik Pe'er,Alkes L. Price,Shaun Purcell,Daniel J. Richter,Pardis C. Sabeti,Richa Saxena,Stephen F. Schaffner,Pak C. Sham,Patrick Varilly,Lincoln Stein,Lalitha Krishnan,Albert V. Smith,Marcela K. Tello-Ruiz,Gudmundur A. Thorisson,Aravinda Chakravarti,Peter E. Chen,David J. Cutler,Carl S. Kashuk,Shin Lin,Gonçalo R. Abecasis,Weihua Guan,Yun Li,Heather M. Munro,Zhaohui S. Qin,Daryl J. Thomas,Gilean McVean,Adam Auton,Leonardo Bottolo,Niall Cardin,Susana Eyheramendy,Colin Freeman,Jonathan Marchini,Simon Myers,Chris C. A. Spencer,Matthew Stephens,Peter Donnelly,Lon R. Cardon,Geraldine M. Clarke,David M. Evans,Andrew P. Morris,Bruce S. Weir,Todd A. Johnson,James C. Mullikin,Stephen T. Sherry,Michael Feolo,Andrew D. Skol,Houcan Zhang,Ichiro Matsuda,Yoshimitsu Fukushima,Darryl Macer,Eiko Suda,Charles N. Rotimi,Clement Adebamowo,Ike Ajayi,Toyin Aniagwu,Patricia A. Marshall,Chibuzor Nkwodimmah,Charmaine D.M. Royal,Mark Leppert,Missy Dixon,Andy Peiffer,Renzong Qiu,Alastair Kent,Kazuto Kato,Norio Niikawa,Isaac F. Adewole,Bartha Maria Knoppers,Morris W. Foster,Ellen Wright Clayton,Jessica Watkin,Donna M. Muzny,Lynne V. Nazareth,Erica Sodergren,George M. Weinstock,Imtaz Yakub,Bruce W. Birren,Richard K. Wilson,Lucinda Fulton,Jane Rogers,John Burton,Nigel P. Carter,C M Clee,Mark Griffiths,Matthew C. Jones,Kirsten McLay,Robert W. Plumb,Mark T. Ross,Sarah Sims,David Willey,Zhu Chen,Hua Han,Le Kang,Martin Godbout,John C. Wallenburg,Paul L'Archevêque,Guy Bellemare,Koji Saeki,Hongguang Wang,Daochang An,Hongbo Fu,Qing Li,Zhen Wang,Renwu Wang,Arthur L. Holden,Lisa D. Brooks,Jean E. McEwen,Mark S. Guyer,Vivian Ota Wang,Jane Peterson,Michael Shi,Jack Spiegel,Lawrence M. Sung,Lynn F. Zacharia,Francis S. Collins,Karen Kennedy,Ruth Jamieson,John Stewart +237 more
TL;DR: The Phase II HapMap is described, which characterizes over 3.1 million human single nucleotide polymorphisms genotyped in 270 individuals from four geographically diverse populations and includes 25–35% of common SNP variation in the populations surveyed, and increased differentiation at non-synonymous, compared to synonymous, SNPs is demonstrated.
Journal ArticleDOI
Accurate whole human genome sequencing using reversible terminator chemistry
David R. Bentley,Shankar Balasubramanian,Harold Swerdlow,Harold Swerdlow,Geoffrey Paul Smith,John Milton,John Milton,Clive Gavin Brown,Clive Gavin Brown,Kevin Hall,Dirk J. Evers,Colin Barnes,Colin Barnes,Helen Bignell,Jonathan Mark Boutell,Jason Bryant,Richard J. Carter,R. Keira Cheetham,Anthony J. Cox,Darren James Ellis,Michael R. Flatbush,Niall Anthony Gormley,Sean Humphray,Leslie J. Irving,Mirian S. Karbelashvili,Scott M. Kirk,Heng Li,Xiaohai Liu,Xiaohai Liu,Klaus Maisinger,Lisa Murray,Bojan Obradovic,Tobias William Barr Ost,Michael Lawrence Parkinson,M. R. Pratt,Isabelle Rasolonjatovo,Mark T. Reed,Roberto Rigatti,Chiara Rodighiero,Mark T. Ross,Andrea Sabot,Subramanian V. Sankar,Aylwyn Scally,Gary P. Schroth,Mark Smith,Vincent Peter Smith,Anastassia Spiridou,Peta E. Torrance,Svilen S. Tzonev,Eric Vermaas,Klaudia Walter,Wu Xiaolin,Lu Zhang,Mohammed D. Alam,Carole Anastasi,Ify C. Aniebo,David Mark Dunstan Bailey,Iain R. Bancarz,Saibal Banerjee,Selena G. Barbour,Primo Baybayan,Vincent A. Benoit,Kevin Benson,Claire Bevis,Phillip J. Black,Asha Boodhun,Joe S. Brennan,John Bridgham,Rob C. Brown,Andrew A. Brown,Dale Buermann,Abass A. Bundu,James C. Burrows,Nigel P. Carter,Nestor Castillo,Maria Chiara E. Catenazzi,Simon Chang,R. Neil Cooley,Natasha R. Crake,Olubunmi O. Dada,Konstantinos D. Diakoumakos,Belen Dominguez-Fernandez,David James Earnshaw,David James Earnshaw,Ugonna C. Egbujor,David W. Elmore,Sergey Etchin,Mark R. Ewan,Milan Fedurco,Louise Fraser,Karin Fuentes Fajardo,W. Scott Furey,David George,Kimberley J. Gietzen,Colin P. Goddard,George Stefan Golda,Philip A. Granieri,David E. Green,David L. Gustafson,Nancy F. Hansen,Kevin Harnish,Christian D. Haudenschild,Narinder I. Heyer,Matthew M. Hims,Johnny T. Ho,Adrian Horgan,Katya Hoschler,Steve Hurwitz,Denis V. Ivanov,Maria Q. Johnson,Terena James,T. A. Huw Jones,Gyoung-Dong Kang,Tzvetana H. Kerelska,Alan D. Kersey,Irina Khrebtukova,Alex P. Kindwall,Zoya Kingsbury,Paula Kokko-Gonzales,Anil Kumar,Marc Laurent,Cindy Lawley,Sarah E. Lee,Xavier Lee,Arnold Liao,Jennifer A. Loch,Mitch Lok,Shujun Luo,Radhika M. Mammen,John W. Martin,Patrick Mccauley,Paul McNitt,Parul Mehta,Keith W. Moon,Joe W. Mullens,Taksina Newington,Zemin Ning,Bee Ling Ng,Sonia M. Novo,Michael J. O'Neill,Mark A. Osborne,Mark A. Osborne,Andrew Osnowski,Omead Ostadan,Lambros L. Paraschos,Lea Pickering,Andrew C. Pike,Alger C. Pike,D. Chris Pinkard,Daniel P. Pliskin,Joe Podhasky,Victor J. Quijano,Come Raczy,Vicki H. Rae,Stephen Rawlings,Ana Chiva Rodriguez,Phyllida M. Roe,John Rogers,Maria Candelaria Rogert Bacigalupo,Nikolai Romanov,Anthony Romieu,Rithy K. Roth,Natalie J. Rourke,Silke Ruediger,Eli Rusman,Raquel Maria Sanches-Kuiper,Martin R. Schenker,Josefina M. Seoane,Richard Shaw,Mitch K. Shiver,Steven W. Short,Ning Sizto,Johannes P. Sluis,Melanie Anne Smith,Jean Ernest Sohna Sohna,Eric J. Spence,Kim B. Stevens,Neil Sutton,Lukasz Szajkowski,Carolyn Tregidgo,Gerardo Turcatti,Stephanie Vandevondele,Yuli Verhovsky,Selene M. Virk,Suzanne Wakelin,Gregory C. Walcott,Jingwen Wang,Graham John Worsley,Juying Yan,Ling Yau,Mike Zuerlein,Jane Rogers,James C. Mullikin,Matthew E. Hurles,Nick J. McCooke,Nick J. McCooke,John Stephen West,Frank L. Oaks,Peter Lundberg,David Klenerman,Richard Durbin,Anthony J. Smith +201 more
TL;DR: An approach that generates several billion bases of accurate nucleotide sequence per experiment at low cost is reported, effective for accurate, rapid and economical whole-genome re-sequencing and many other biomedical applications.
Journal ArticleDOI
ABySS: A parallel assembler for short read sequence data
Jared T. Simpson,Kim Wong,Shaun D. Jackman,Jacqueline E. Schein,Steven J.M. Jones,Inanc Birol +5 more
TL;DR: ABySS (Assembly By Short Sequences), a parallelized sequence assembler, was developed and assembled 3.5 billion paired-end reads from the genome of an African male publicly released by Illumina, Inc, representing 68% of the reference human genome.
Journal ArticleDOI
Genome sequence, comparative analysis and haplotype structure of the domestic dog
Kerstin Lindblad-Toh,Claire M. Wade,Claire M. Wade,Tarjei S. Mikkelsen,Tarjei S. Mikkelsen,Elinor K. Karlsson,Elinor K. Karlsson,David B. Jaffe,Michael Kamal,Michele Clamp,Jean L. Chang,Edward J. Kulbokas,Michael C. Zody,Evan Mauceli,Xiaohui Xie,Matthew Breen,Robert K. Wayne,Elaine A. Ostrander,Chris P. Ponting,Francis Galibert,Douglas Smith,Pieter J. deJong,Ewen F. Kirkness,Pablo Alvarez,Tara Biagi,William Brockman,Jonathan Butler,Chee-Wye Chin,April Cook,James Cuff,Mark J. Daly,Mark J. Daly,David DeCaprio,Sante Gnerre,Manfred Grabherr,Manolis Kellis,Michael Kleber,Carolyne Bardeleben,Leo Goodstadt,Andreas Heger,Christophe Hitte,Lisa Kim,Klaus-Peter Koepfli,Heidi G. Parker,John P. Pollinger,Stephen M. J. Searle,Nathan B. Sutter,Rachael Thomas,Caleb Webber,Jennifer Baldwin,Jennifer Baldwin,Adal Abebe,Amr Abouelleil,Lynne Aftuck,Mostafa Ait-zahra,Tyler Aldredge,Nicole R. Allen,Peter An,Scott Anderson,Claudel Antoine,Harindra Arachchi,Ali Aslam,Laura Ayotte,Pasang Bachantsang,Andrew Barry,Tashi Bayul,Mostafa Benamara,Aaron M. Berlin,Daniel Bessette,Berta Blitshteyn,Toby Bloom,Jason Blye,Leonid Boguslavskiy,Claude Bonnet,Boris Boukhgalter,Adam Brown,Patrick Cahill,Nadia Calixte,Jody Camarata,Yama Cheshatsang,Jeffrey Chu,Mieke Citroen,Alville Collymore,Patrick Cooke,Tenzin Dawoe,Riza M. Daza,Karin Decktor,Stuart DeGray,Norbu Dhargay,Kimberly Dooley,Kathleen Dooley,Passang Dorje,Kunsang Dorjee,Lester Dorris,Noah Duffey,Alan Dupes,Osebhajajeme Egbiremolen,Richard Elong,Jill Falk,Abderrahim Farina,Susan Faro,Diallo Ferguson,Patricia Ferreira,Sheila A. Fisher,Michael Fitzgerald,Karen Foley,Chelsea D. Foley,Alicia Franke,Dennis C. Friedrich,Diane Gage,Manuel Garber,Gary Gearin,Georgia Giannoukos,Tina Goode,Audra Goyette,Joseph Graham,Edward Grandbois,Kunsang Gyaltsen,Nabil Hafez,Daniel S. Hagopian,Birhane Hagos,Jennifer Ruth Sadler Hall,Claire M. Healy,Ryan Hegarty,Tracey Honan,Andrea Horn,Nathan Houde,Leanne Hughes,Leigh Anne Hunnicutt,M. Husby,Benjamin Jester,Charlien Jones,Asha Kamat,Ben Kanga,Cristyn Kells,Dmitry Khazanovich,Alix Chinh Kieu,Peter Kisner,Mayank Kumar,Krista Lance,Thomas E. Landers,Marcia Lara,William H. Lee,Jean-Pierre Leger,Niall J. Lennon,Lisa Leuper,Sarah LeVine,Jinlei Liu,Xiaohong Liu,Yeshi Lokyitsang,Tashi Lokyitsang,Annie Lui,Jan Macdonald,John E. Major,Richard Marabella,Kebede Maru,Charles Matthews,Susan McDonough,Teena Mehta,James Meldrim,Alexandre Melnikov,Louis Meneus,Atanas Mihalev,Tanya Mihova,Karen Hughes Miller,Rachel Mittelman,Valentine Mlenga,Leonidas Mulrain,Glen Munson,Adam Navidi,Jerome Naylor,Tuyen T. Nguyen,Nga Nguyen,Cindy Nguyen,Thu Nguyen,Robert Nicol,Nyima Norbu,Choe Norbu,Nathaniel Novod,Tenchoe Nyima,Peter Olandt,Barry O'Neill,Keith O'Neill,Sahal Osman,Lucien Oyono,Christopher Patti,Danielle Perrin,Pema Phunkhang,Fritz Pierre,Margaret Priest,Anthony Rachupka,Sujaa Raghuraman,Rayale Rameau,Verneda Ray,Christina Raymond,Filip Rege,Cecil Rise,Julie Rogers,Peter Rogov,Julie Sahalie,Sampath Settipalli,Ted Sharpe,Terrance Shea,Mechele Sheehan,Ngawang Sherpa,Jianying Shi,Diana M. Shih,Jessie Sloan,Cherylyn Smith,Todd Sparrow,John Stalker,Nicole Stange-Thomann,Sharon Stavropoulos,Catherine Stone,Sabrina M. Stone,Sean M. Sykes,Pierre Tchuinga,Pema Tenzing,Senait Tesfaye,Dawa Thoulutsang,Yama Thoulutsang,Kerri Topham,Ira Topping,Tsamla Tsamla,Helen Vassiliev,Vijay Venkataraman,Andy Vo,Tsering Wangchuk,Tsering Wangdi,Michael Weiand,Jane E. Wilkinson,Adam Wilson,Shailendra Yadav,Shuli Yang,Xiaoping Yang,Geneva Young,Qing Yu,Joanne Zainoun,Lisa Zembek,Andrew Zimmer,Eric S. Lander,Eric S. Lander +241 more
TL;DR: A high-quality draft genome sequence of the domestic dog is reported, together with a dense map of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) across breeds, to shed light on the structure and evolution of genomes and genes.